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House of Leaves Wikipedia Pages
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Contents Articles House of Leaves Mark Z. Danielewski
1 12
Some Themes
14
House
14
Stairway
22
Maze
35
Cardinal directions
45
Tattoo
52
Model (person)
65
Photography
70
Videotape
88
Check mark
94
Liberty Bell
95
Parallax
108
Gold
118
Minotaur
138
Labyrinth
143
Morse code
152
SOS
162
Time-Life
165
String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven)
169
Technicals
171
Bluescreen
171
True north
176
Hexadecimal
177
Hex editor
188
AIFF
189
Calculus
193
Places
205
India
205
Los Angeles
228
Seattle, Washington
255
Virginia
285
Literary Topics
315
Academic writing
315
Cult following
318
Documentary film
319
Ergodic literature
329
Editing
330
Leaf
334
List of fictional books
348
Novel
408
Satire
460
Unreliable narrator
472
Afflictions
478
Mental institution
478
Agoraphobia
482
Blindness
488
Claustrophobia
497
Echolalia
501
Panic attack
502
Insanity
508
Murder
511
Colors
521
Blue
521
Red
527
Purple
535
Grey
551
Typography
557
Typography
557
Typeface
566
Page (paper)
575
Note (typography)
577
Braille
580
Courier (font)
592
Times Roman
595
Bookman (typeface)
People
600 602
Beethoven
602
Harold Bloom
620
Jorge Luis Borges
628
Ken Burns
645
Kevin Carter
649
Ann Danielewski
651
Jacques Derrida
653
Federico Fellini
675
Douglas Hofstadter
689
Homer
697
Stephen King
708
Stanley Kubrick
725
Camille Paglia
766
Milorad Pavić (writer)
778
Poe (singer)
783
Edgar Allan Poe
786
Steven Poole
800
Anthony Quinn
802
Anne Rice
811
Hunter S. Thompson
820
Foreign
838
Phonetic
838
French language
841
German language
859
Italian language
881
Latin
897
Old English
911
Spanish language
925
The Seafarer (poem)
948
The Battle of Maldon
951
Order of the Garter
954
French Union
964
Battle of Dien Bien Phu
965
Viet Minh
978
French Indochina
980
French Foreign Legion
987
Lost Command
Media
1011 1014
Album
1014
Hello (Poe album)
1017
Haunted (Poe album)
1020
Hey Pretty
1023
Derrida (film)
1025
La strada (film)
1028
The Whalestoe Letters
1033
The Fifty Year Sword
1035
Only Revolutions
1037
Pantheon Books
1042
Random House
1048
Bestseller
1056
Library of Congress
1061
References Article Sources and Contributors
1072
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
1106
Article Licenses License
1123
House of Leaves
1
House of Leaves House of Leaves
2nd edition paperback cover Author
Mark Z. Danielewski
Cover artist
Eric Fuentecilla
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre(s)
Horror Romance Satire
Publisher
Pantheon Books, Random House
Publication date
2000-03-07
Media type
Print (paperback and hardcover)
Pages
709 (paperback)
ISBN
0-375-70376-4
OCLC Number
41641311
Dewey Decimal
813/.54 21
LC Classification
PS3554.A5596 H68 2000
Followed by
The Whalestoe Letters
[1]
House of Leaves is the debut novel by the American author Mark Z. Danielewski, published by Pantheon Books. The novel quickly became a bestseller following its March 7, 2000, release, having already developed a cult following through gradual release over the Internet. It was followed by a companion piece, The Whalestoe Letters. The novel has since been translated into a number of foreign languages. The format and structure of the novel is unconventional, with unusual page layout and style, making it ergodic literature. It contains copious footnotes, many of which contain footnotes themselves, and some of which reference books that do not exist.[2] Some pages contain only a few words or lines of text, arranged in strange ways to mirror the events in the story, often creating both an agoraphobic and a claustrophobic effect. The novel is also distinctive for its multiple narrators, who interact with each other throughout the story in disorienting and elaborate ways. Danielewski expands on this point in an interview: "I had one woman come up to me in a bookstore and say, 'You know, everyone told me it was a horror book, but when I finished it, I realized that it was a love story.' And she's absolutely right. In some ways, genre is a marketing tool."[3] House of Leaves has been described as a "satire of academic criticism."[4]
House of Leaves
Plot summary House of Leaves begins with a first-person narrative by Johnny Truant, a Los Angeles tattoo parlor employee. Truant is searching for a new apartment when his friend Lude tells him about the apartment of the recently deceased Zampanò, a blind, elderly man who lived in Lude's building. In Zampanò's apartment, Truant discovers a manuscript written by Zampanò that turns out to be an academic study of a documentary film called The Navidson Record. The rest of the novel alternates between Zampanò's report on the Mark Danielewski fictional film; Truant's autobiographical interjections; a small transcript of part of the film from Navidson's brother, Tom; a small transcript of interviews to many people regarding The Navidson Record by Navidson's partner, Karen; and occasional brief notes by unidentified editors, all woven together by a mass of footnotes. There is also another narrator, Truant's mother, whose voice is presented through a self-contained set of letters titled The Whalestoe Letters. Each narrator's text is printed in a distinct font, making it easier for the reader to follow the occasionally challenging format of the novel.
The Navidson Record Zampanò's narrative deals primarily with the Navidson family: Will Navidson, a photojournalist (partly based on Kevin Carter), his partner Karen Green, an attractive former fashion model, and their two children, Chad and Daisy. Navidson's brother, Tom, and several other characters also play a role later in the story. The Navidson family has recently moved into a new home in Virginia. Upon returning from a trip to Seattle, the Navidson family discovers a change in their home. A closet-like space shut behind an undecorated door appears inexplicably where previously there was only a blank wall. A second door appears at the end of the closet, leading to the children's room. As Navidson investigates this phenomenon, he finds that the internal measurements of the house are somehow larger than external measurements. Initially there is less than an inch of difference, but as time passes the interior of the house is found to be seemingly expanding, while maintaining the same exterior proportions. A third change asserts itself: a dark, cold hallway in their living room wall that, physically, should extend out into their yard, but does not. Navidson films this strange place, looping around the house to show where the space should be and clearly is not. The filming of this anomaly comes to be referred to as "The Five and a Half Minute Hallway". This hallway leads to a maze-like complex, starting with a large room (the "Anteroom"), which in turn leads to a truly enormous space (the "Great Hall"), a room primarily distinguished by an enormous spiral staircase which appears, when viewed from the landing, to spiral down without end. There is also a multitude of corridors and rooms leading off from each passage. All of these rooms and hallways are completely unlit and featureless, consisting of smooth ash-grey walls, floors, and ceilings. The only sound disturbing the perfect silence of the hallways is a periodic low growl, the source of which is never fully explained, although an academic source "quoted" in the book hypothesizes that the growl is created by the frequent re-shaping of the house. There is some discrepancy as to where "The Five and a Half Minute Hallway" appears. It is quoted by different characters at different times to have been located in each of the cardinal directions. This first happens when Zampanò writes that the hallway is in the western wall (House of Leaves 57), directly contradicting an earlier page where the hallway is mentioned to be in the northern wall (House of Leaves 4). Johnny's footnotes point out the contradiction. Navidson, along with his brother Tom and some colleagues, feel compelled to explore, photograph, and videotape the house's seemingly endless series of passages, eventually driving various characters to insanity, murder, and
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House of Leaves death. Ultimately, Will releases what has been recorded and edited as The Navidson Record. Will and Karen purchased the house because their relationship was becoming strained with Will's work-related absences. While Karen was always adamantly against marriage (claiming that she valued her freedom above anything else), she always found herself missing and needing Will when he was gone: "And yet even though Karen keeps Chad from overfilling the mold or Daisy from cutting herself with the scissors, she still cannot resist looking out the window every couple of minutes. The sound of a passing truck causes her to glance away" (House of Leaves 11–12). Zampanò's narrative is littered with all manner of references, some quite obscure, others indicating that the Navidsons' story achieved international notoriety. Luminaries such as Stephen King, Stanley Kubrick, Douglas Hofstadter, Ken Burns, Harold Bloom, Camille Paglia, Hunter Thompson, Anne Rice, and Jacques Derrida were apparently interviewed as to their opinions about the film. However, when Truant investigates, he finds no history of the house, no evidence of the events experienced by the Navidsons, and nothing else to establish that the house or film ever existed anywhere other than in Zampanò's text. Many of the references in Zampanò's footnotes, however, are real—existing both within his world and our world outside the novel. For example, several times Zampanò cites an actual Time-Life book, Planet Earth: Underground Worlds (House of Leaves 125).
Johnny's story An adjacent story line develops in Johnny's footnotes, detailing what is progressing in Johnny's life as he is assembling the narrative. It remains unclear if Johnny's obsession with the writings of Zampanò and subsequent delusions, paranoia, etc. are the result of drug use, insanity, or the effects of Zampanò's writing itself. Johnny recounts tales of his various sexual encounters, his lust for a tattooed stripper he calls Thumper, and his bar-hopping with Lude throughout various footnotes. The reader also slowly learns more about Johnny's childhood living with an abusive foster father, engaging in violent fights at school, and of the origin of Johnny's mysterious scars (House of Leaves, p. 505). More information about Johnny can be gleaned from the Whalestoe Letters, letters his mother Pelafina wrote from The Three Attic Whalestoe Institution. Though Pelafina's letters and Johnny's footnotes contain similar accounts of their past, their memories also differ greatly at times, due to both Pelafina's and Johnny's questionable mental state. Pelafina was placed in the mental institution after supposedly attempting to strangle Johnny, only to be stopped by her husband. She remained there after Johnny's father's death. Johnny claims that his mother meant him no harm and claimed to strangle him only to protect him from missing her, etc. It is unclear, however, if Johnny's statements about the incident — or any of his other statements, for that matter — are factual.
The Whalestoe Letters This story is included in an appendix near the end of the book, as well as in its own, self-contained book (with additional content included in the self-contained version). It consists of Johnny's mother's letters to him from a psychiatric hospital. The letters start off fairly normal but Pelafina quickly descends into paranoia and the letters become more and more incoherent. There are also several secret messages in the letters, which can be decoded by combining the first letter of consecutive words.
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House of Leaves
Characters Johnny's story Johnny Truant Johnny Truant serves a dual role, as primary editor of Zampanò’s academic study of The Navidson Record and protagonist as revealed through footnotes and appendices. In the beginning of the book, Truant appears to be a normal, reasonably attractive young man who happens upon a trunk full of notes left behind by the now deceased Zampanò. As Truant begins to do the editing, however, he begins to lose the tenuous grip he has on reality, and his life begins to erode around him. He stops bathing, rarely eats, stops going to work, and distances himself from essentially everyone, all in pursuit of organizing the book into a finished work that, he hopes, will finally bring him peace. Initially intrigued by Zampanò’s isolative tendencies and surreal sense of reality, Johnny unknowingly sets himself up as a victim to the daunting task that awaits him. As he begins to organize Zampanò’s manuscripts, his personal footnotes detail the deterioration of his own life with analogous references to alienation and insanity: once a trespasser to Zampanò's mad realm, Truant seems to become more comfortable in the environment as the story unfolds. He even has hallucinations that parallel those of Zampanò and members of the house search team when he senses "…something inhuman…" behind him (House of Leaves 26). Spiraling downward into a dark labyrinth of his own, Johnny is therefore aware that his life has become unmanageable: his association with Zampanò’s task seems to have consumed him in his vulnerable state. Aside from simply functioning as an editor and protagonist in the novel, Johnny is also presented as an unreliable narrator. The reader is warned of this unreliability early in the novel by one of Johnny's footnotes in which Johnny responds to the problem of Navidson's broken "water heater." After a long liturgy about the need for warm water, Johnny says, "Is it just coincidence that this cold water predicament of mine also appears in this chapter? Not at all. Zampanò only wrote "heater." The word "water" back there—I added that" (House of Leaves, p. 16). It is unclear if Johnny changed other parts of the text and failed to inform the reader. Near the end of the novel, Johnny presents a story of his salvation at the hands of friends as truth, but later recants, saying, "I just made that all up. Right out of thin air" (House of Leaves, p. 509). Zampanò Zampanò is the blind author of The Navidson Record. Danielewski made Zampanò blind as a reference to blind authors Homer and Jorge Luis Borges.[5] Additionally, his blindness acts as one of the key mysteries of Johnny's section of the novel: How and why did a blind man not only write a monograph about a movie, but a movie that is highly visual in nature? Little to no information is given explicitly about Zampanò's past, blindness, or personality. Only vague clues are given throughout the story to suggest at aspects of his past: • On page xxii, it is mentioned that when he was in a bad mood, Zampanò would ruefully repeat a series of female names: Beatrice, Gabrielle, Anne-Marie, Dominique, Eliane, Isabelle and Claudine. These were the names of seven of the French Union Forces' defensive positions at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, a devastating defeat of the French by Viet Minh soldiers, which led to France's withdrawal from French Indochina. Among the French defenders were troops from the French Foreign Legion.[6] • In the appendices, a letter appears that Zampanò wrote to a California newspaper, warning its readers that a local arms merchant is falsely selling shotguns as having been manufactured during World War II; Zampanò then goes into a lengthy discussion about the difference between WWII shotguns and their successors, down to various tactical schematics and shotgun markings; he says that he uncovered the weapons dealer as a fraud by feeling the guns. Earlier in the book, passing reference is made to Johnny and Lude finding a shotgun in Zampanò's
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House of Leaves apartment that matches the WWII era shotgun Zampanò describes in his letter. • In one of Pelafina's letters to Johnny, she strangely addresses Zampanò using the code she created to be read by Johnny, asking: "My dear Zampanò, who did you lose?" • The endpapers of the US hardcover edition of the novel contain hexadecimal characters, which are actually an AIFF audio file of an excerpt from Poe's track "Angry Johnny" when saved as a file in a hex editor.[7] "Zampanò" is also the name of the protagonist (a traveling entertainer) in the 1954 film La strada, which was directed by Federico Fellini.[8] The character of Zampanò was played by actor Anthony Quinn. In 1964, Quinn starred in the film Lost Command, which opens with the end of the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Pelafina H. Lièvre Pelafina, more commonly referred simply as "P.", is Johnny's institutionalized mother who appears in the appendix to the text. Her story is more fully developed in The Whalestoe Letters. Minor characters in Johnny's story Lude: Johnny Truant's best friend, Lude is also the one that informs him of Zampanò's vacant apartment. Lude is a minor character, but some of his characteristics and actions are important in understanding Johnny. Lude assists Johnny many times in obtaining phone numbers of girls when they visit bars, clubs, and restaurants. Several times, Johnny mentions that he wishes he hadn't answered Lude's call late at night. Every time Johnny and Lude are together they seem to involve themselves in difficult situations. Thumper: A stripper who is a regular client of the tattoo parlour where Truant works. Although Johnny has encounters with many women throughout his narrative, he remains fixated on Thumper (whose real name is eventually revealed to Johnny but never to the reader) throughout.
The Navidson Record Will Navidson Will is the central character in The Navidson Record subplot of the novel. A stint in the army early in his life leads him to a very successful career as a photographer, primarily in war-torn parts of the world; his role as an impartial documentarist of war affects him deeply. Later in his life, he moves to the eponymous house (located in the southeastern Virginia countryside), in an effort to find "[a] place to drink lemonade and watch the sun set", a place to "once and for all stay in and explore the quieter side of life" (House of Leaves, p. 9). However the unnatural events that occur thereafter have a profound effect upon him and his relationship with his partner, Karen. Karen Green Karen is Will's partner and a former fashion model. She suffers from crippling claustrophobia, and throughout the novel refuses to enter the labyrinth within her house. She also seems to be extremely insecure regarding her relationship with Will; he is 'her rock,' though it is confirmed that she had at least three long-term affairs during the course of their relationship. Curiously, the events of the novel only seem to reduce her dependence on Will (as well as contributing to the eventual dissolution of their relationship). It is speculated that, during Karen's childhood, her stepfather used to take Karen and her sister into a barn in their backyard, put one in a well and rape the other. However, several footnotes and comments about the incident question this claim (another of many examples of the use of an unreliable narrator in the novel). In the aftermath of the events in the house, she becomes an unlikely editor, approaching many real characters (including Stephen King, Stanley Kubrick, Hunter S. Thompson, Douglas Hofstadter, Harold Bloom, and Jacques Derrida) for comment on The Navidson Record, albeit comment within the fictional universe of the novel. Eventually, she is reunited with Navidson after his final exploration of the labyrinth.
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House of Leaves Tom Navidson Tom is Will Navidson’s somewhat estranged fraternal twin brother; Tom is a carpenter with substance addiction problems, who is markedly less successful than Will in his personal and professional life. After approximately 8 years of little contact, Will contacts Tom when he notices that his house is larger on the inside than the outside. A section of the novel, called "Tom’s Story" is a partial transcript of documentary evidence and radio communication with the outside world during his vigil within the labyrinth, which he spends alone with his radio, waiting for Will. This section is referred to in the book as a "sometimes funny, sometimes bizarre history of thoughts passing away in the atrocity of that darkness" (House of Leaves 252). He often refers to "Mr. Monster" and many of the jokes and anecdotes he provides are religious in nature. However, in a test of his true character, he bravely saves Will's kids from being swallowed by the house but is swallowed himself. Billy Reston Billy is an engineer and a friend of Will's, whom Will enlists early on in the story to help him try and find a rational explanation for the house's oddities. Billy uses a wheelchair, having been paralyzed from the waist down in a freak engineering accident in India; Will happened to be on the scene and took a photo of Billy moments before he became paralyzed. Billy came across the photo after his accident and kept it as a reminder that he was fortunate to have survived. Once the house's irregularities become more extreme, Billy joins Will and Tom in a thorough analysis; after Holloway and his men go missing, Billy, in spite of his handicap, insists on joining Will on the rescue mission, navigating the maze in his wheelchair. He eventually saves Will and Holloway's men from Holloway by engaging in a firefight with him, holding him back long enough for the house to "consume" Holloway. Billy survives the journey into the maze, but suffers persistent cold spells afterward as well as sustains damage to his wheelchair. Holloway Roberts Holloway is an experienced explorer whom Will contacts in an effort to properly explore the labyrinth beneath his house. Holloway is presented as the consummate outdoorsman: He has successfully engaged in numerous expeditions which would have killed normal men, and is an expert in all forms of survivalist equipment, from spelunking gear to firearms. He engages in two brief explorations of the labyrinth before deciding to take his men on a third, prolonged expedition, prior to which they load themselves up with enough food and water to last several days and enough provisions to—they believe—safely guide them back home. During the course of this exploration, Holloway's resolve slowly deteriorates, until the house's bizarre architecture leads him to believe an image he sees down a hall is the "monster" stalking them when, in fact, he is actually looking at his own men; he shoots one of them, and, upon realizing what he's done, suffers a complete psychological breakdown and tries to murder them, as well as the rescue party of Will and Billy. Eventually, the house "traps" him by sealing him inside a series of locked chambers; alone and insane, Holloway records a series of unsettling final messages on a video camera before filming himself committing suicide. The tape of his death is recovered by Will from the labyrinth. The seconds leading up to the end of the tape reveal that either 1) Holloway's corpse is devoured by the "monster" he is convinced is real or 2) Holloway merely disappears into the blackness of the house. When the House begins to actively attempt to harm the others late in the novel, Reston calls out Holloway's name. Whether Holloway had some influence on the house's actions (before or after his suicide) is left ambiguous. Minor characters in The Navidson Record Kirby 'Wax' Hook: Another explorer of the labyrinth in Navidson's house. He is ultimately shot by Holloway in the shoulder; however, he goes on to survive. The House leaves him with limited functionality in that shoulder, and an inexplicable case of impotence. However, after Navidson reenters the House for a 5th and final exploration, these symptoms disappear. Wax has a reputation as a flirt, who constantly attempts to hook-up with women. He kisses Karen Green, a scene which Will later witnesses on camera. Jed Leeder: The third explorer of the labyrinth in Navidson's house. He is shot by Holloway in the jaw, killing him
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House of Leaves nearly instantaneously. Chad Navidson: Will Navidson and Karen Green's son, the older sibling. Around the times of the explorations, Chad is described as becoming increasingly aggressive and wandering. Daisy Navidson: Will Navidson and Karen Green's daughter. During the explorations of the house, Daisy is described as suffering from echolalia.
Format There are many unusual, and often disorienting, elements of House of Leaves. One feature of some paperback editions of the book is that the cover of the book is slightly smaller than the pages themselves, causing the edges of the pages to peek out of the side of the black cover. The gap on the paperback cover is exactly 1/2 inch (The initial difference in size between the inside and the outside of the house in The Navidson Record is actually 1/4 inch, soon after becoming 5/16 inch, and so on).
Typography The text of the book is arranged on the pages in such a way that the method of reading the words sometimes mimics the feelings of the characters or the situations in the novel. While characters are navigating claustrophobic labyrinthine sections of the house's interior, the text is densely, confusingly packed into small corners of each page; later, while a character is running desperately from an unseen enemy, there are only a few words on each page for almost 25 pages, causing the reader's pace to quicken as he flips page after page to learn what will happen next. The unorthodox typography and arrangement of chapters or sections is similar to works by Milorad Pavić, allowing the reader to jump around from section to section at will while following footnotes or the multilayered narrative. Continuing the ergodic nature of text-reflecting-tale, the chapter in which Navidson, Karen, and Reston hear a knocking from somewhere Page 134 from the book House of Leaves, an deep inside the house, a knocking patterned after the Morse code example of the typography used in the novel. emergency signal SOS - three short, three long, three short - the text itself is broken into a similar pattern. The breaks are often arbitrary, sometimes even in mid-sentence, and done seemingly for the sole purpose of imitating the SOS signal. It has been noted that the font used for the narratives of different people is relevant. Johnny's font is Courier, Zampanò's font is Times, the Editors' font is Bookman, and Pelafina's font is Dante.
Codes Many things are hidden within the text of the book. Going through the first letter of footnotes 27 through 42 spells the author's full name; the first letter of footnotes 46 through 54 spell his surname. Portions are written in alternating short and long paragraphs which turn out to be Morse code that correspond to the text. A seemingly random list of names on pages 64–65 (Second Edition) produce a code when the first letter of each of the individual's last names are added together, spelling out the phrase "A LONG LIST OF VISIONAIRES" A letter from Pelafina to Johnny on pages 620-623 (Second edition) contains seemingly randomized capital letters strewn throughout it, which, when combined, spell out the phrase, "A FACE IN A CLOUD NO TRACE IN THE CROWD." (House of Leaves 621-622) Some codes, like the author's name, are simply fun to notice. Others actually have an impact that gives
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House of Leaves greater depth and meaning to the portion being read. One of Pelafina's letters includes a coded message apparently addressed to Zampanò, which reads: "My dear Zampanò, who did you lose?" (House of Leaves 615)
Colors Throughout the entirety of House of Leaves (even including the cover and publishing information), the word house is colored blue (grey for non-color editions of the book and light grey for red editions), as in house, and is, in many places in the book, offset from the rest of the text in different directions at different times. Foreign-language equivalents of house, such as the German Haus and the French maison, are also blue. Red and full-color editions of House of Leaves have the word Minotaur and all struck passages colored red. On the inside cover, where the Library of Congress information is listed, there is a note about differences in editions. In the full-color edition of House of Leaves, a struck line appears in purple in Chapter XXI. Purple is associated throughout the novel with Pelafina, as it is the color of her long nails, and also the color of the ink Johnny is putting into needles when he has his panic attack in the supply closet. The inside of the cover mentions a full-color "first edition" version including braille. The following editions are known and confirmed to exist: • Black-and-White Edition—No colored words. Plain black text. House in grey. No Braille. Black and white appendices. • Blue Edition—House in blue. Minotaur and struck passages in regular black text. No Braille. Black and white appendices. • Red Edition—House in light grey. Minotaur and struck passages in red. No Braille. Black and white appendices. • Full Color Edition—House in blue. Minotaur and struck passages in red. On the jacket, A Novel and the Pantheon logo in purple. In the book, First Edition and the struck line in Chapter XXI in purple. The word "braille" is replaced with seven Xs. Appendices are full color plates.[9] A further edition printed on the inside of the cover, named "Incomplete", promises "no color, no Braille, (and) elements in the exhibits, appendices and index may be missing". It is unclear if any such editions exist. Danielewski leaves much of the interpretation of the choice of colors up to the reader, but he has mentioned in interviews that the choice of the color blue is in part drawn from the bluescreen technique used in filmmaking.[10] The use of color in Danielewski's next full-length novel, Only Revolutions, is even more prevalent, with four colors other than black used throughout (also, the word house is also printed in blue in some sections of this novel).
The check mark The check mark appears on the lower right hand corner of page 97. It is possibly a reference to Pelafina's letter requesting that Truant "Place in [his] next letter a check mark in the lower right hand corner. That way [she'll] know [he] received this letter" (House of Leaves 609). It also appears to mark the starting point of the book's more eccentric formatting patterns. The check mark is not present in the UK edition of the book.
Title House of Leaves originally began as a short story, titled Redwood. "Redwood" is also referenced in relation to the cats who have started dying and disappearing: "Redwood. I saw him once a long time ago when I was young. I ran away and luckily, or no luck at all, he did not follow me. But now I cannot run and anyway this time I am certain he would follow" (House of Leaves 547). Zampanò's linking of the cats' disappearance with Redwood could be a connection to the disappearances that occurred in the house and the elusive being which seems to haunt the halls. Redwood was also the main type of wood used in the construction of the Winchester Mystery House (see below).
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House of Leaves A great amount of interaction exists between the house and the book, beginning with the title of the book, House of Leaves, where leaves is a synonym for pages, thus making the "house" a book. House of Leaves is also the same title that Zampanò originally uses for his manuscript. Additionally, at the end of the book, when Navidson is falling through nothing inside the labyrinth, he reads a book supposedly called House of Leaves, burning the pages for light as he goes along. Also notable is an untitled poem in Appendix F, seen below: "Little solace comes to those who grieve as thoughts keep drifting as walls keep shifting and this great blue world of ours seems a house of leaves Moments before the wind." (House of Leaves 563)
Foreign languages As a key part of House of Leaves' fixation with academic, intellectual writing and obscurity in general, there are countless quotations and phrases strewn throughout the book in numerous other languages, ranging from Latin to Spanish to Old English. Some of these are translated, but many are not. A few of these phrases include: • "Muss es sein?", German for "Must it be?" or "Does it have to?" (House of Leaves 1). [see Beethoven's String Quartet No. 16] • "C'est vraiment triste", French for "It's truly sad" (House of Leaves 590). • "bambino dell'oro", Italian for "child of gold". "bambino dell'oro" literally means "the child of the gold", referring to a specific type or amount of gold. A more appropriate translation of "child of gold" is "bambino d'oro" (House of Leaves 592). • "Fuit Ilium." Latin, meaning "There once was a Troy" or "Troy was, but is no more" or "the place is gone." • "Ira furor brevis est." Latin for "Anger is a short madness." A line from the Roman poet, Horace (House of Leaves 597). • "Micel biþ se Meotudes egsa, for þon hī sēo molde oncyrreð", from the Old English poem The Seafarer, meaning "Great is the fear of the Lord, before which the world stands still" (House of Leaves 595). Later, there is a quotation from the poem The Battle of Maldon, meaning "Our hearts must grow resolute, our courage more valiant, our spirits must be greater, though our strength grows less" (House of Leaves 601). • "Honi soit qui mal y pense." French. It is the motto of the Order of the Garter and means "Shamed be he who thinks evil of it." (House of Leaves 601). • At different times, Truant says: "Known Some Call Is Air Am". Although it appears to be a random string of words, it is actually phonetically similar to "Non sum qualis eram", Latin for "I am not as I was," or more aptly said, "I am not what I used to be."
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House of Leaves
First-page insert In the color editions, the first page of the book is a photograph of numerous items scattered on a flat surface. These items include pills, rulers, a broken compass, bullet shells, photographs (the same ones found in Appendix III), and scraps of paper. There are drops and smudges of a red liquid on most of the items. In the center of the picture is a note in Johnny's typeface that suggests "altering the whole thing" and to "kill both children".
Appendices House of Leaves contains rather large appendices. As appendices are generally more common in works on non-fiction and text books, this section is part of the format that immediately sets the book apart from contemporary fiction. Some entries are integral to the story, such as Pelafina’s letters in Appendix II-E, while others provide background on the characters, such as Zampanò’s letter to the editor. Several places in the text refer the reader to the appendices. For example, the Editors suggest that in order to better understand Johnny, the reader should turn to the letters from his mother (House of Leaves 72). Other entries appear to contain only disorganized fragments that could not be fit in elsewhere. These fragments, including poems, photocopies of scraps of paper, collages, notes, quotes, etc., may contain clues to some of the novel’s mysteries, such as the Ground-Air Emergency Code sheet in Collage #1 which may relate to some of the symbols used to denote footnotes. On the whole, however, these clues are seldom conclusive and often contradictory. For instance, the section on Zampanò's notes include a chapter title for Chapter XXI, and although Zampanò's notes were in the "first edition" appendix, Chapter XXI, which includes only a diary from Johnny and nothing about the Navidson Record, is stated to not have appeared in the "first edition" at all. However, this may mean in the flow of the narrative that the contents of Chapter XXI were eradicated by Truant and replaced by his own notes.
Index An index is included at the end of the book, although it is not complete or even entirely accurate. Not all important words are indexed, incorrect page numbers are listed for some words, and some words have the notation "DNE". There are also such inconsequential words such as and, only, so, in, for, can, and all listed. There is no clear definition provided for "DNE", however it also appears elsewhere in the novel, while discussing true north and in a collage (House of Leaves 121 and 582). "DNE" is used as an abbreviation for "does not exist" in calculus for undefined limit values or non real function solutions. There are precisely 100 words in the index listed with the notation "DNE".
Companion works The book was followed by a companion piece called The Whalestoe Letters, a series of letters written to the character Johnny Truant by his mother while she was confined in a mental institution. These letters are included in the second edition. House of Leaves was accompanied by a companion piece (or vice versa), a full length album called Haunted recorded by Danielewski's sister, Anne Danielewski, known professionally as Poe. The two works cross-pollinated heavily over the course of their creations, each inspiring the other in various ways. Poe's statement on the connection between the two works is that they are parallax views of the same story. House of Leaves references Poe and her songs several times, not only limited to her album Haunted, but Hello as well. One example occurs when the character Karen Green is interviewing various academics on their interpretations of the short film "Exploration #4"; she consults a "Poet," but there is a space between the "Poe" and the "t," possibly suggesting that Poe at one point commented on the book. It may also be a reference to Edgar Allan Poe. The album Haunted also draws heavily from the novel, featuring tracks called "House of Leaves", "Exploration B" and "5&½ Minute Hallway", and many less obvious references. The video for "Hey Pretty" also features Mark
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House of Leaves Danielewski reading from House of Leaves (pages 88–89), and in House of Leaves, the band Liberty Bell's lyrics were also songs on Poe's album.
References • Danielewski, Mark Z. (2000-03-07), House of Leaves (2nd ed.), New York: Pantheon Books, Random HouseISBN 0375703764 paperback. ISBN 0375420525 hardcover. ISBN 0375410341 hardcover/signed.
Further reading • Bemong, Nele (January 2003), "Exploration #6: The Uncanny in Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves" [11], Image [&] Narrative: Online Magazine of the Visual Narrative 5, ISSN 1780-678X • Brick, Martin (January 2004), "Blueprint(s): Rubric for a Deconstructed Age in House of Leaves" [12], Philament 2, ISSN 1449-0471 • Brigitte, Félix (2005), "Exploration #6: l'architecture narrative de House of Leaves de Mark Z. Danielewski", Cahiers Charles V 38: 43–73, ISSN 0184-1025 • Chanen, Brian (2007), "Surfing the Text: The Digital Environment in Mark Z. Danielewski's "House of Leaves"", European Journal of English Studies 11 (2): 163–176, doi:10.1080/13825570701452755, ISSN 1382-5577 • Cox, Katherine (2006), "What Has Made Me? Locating Mother in the Textual Labyrinth of Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves", Critical Survey 18 (2): 4–15, doi:10.3167/001115706780600756, ISSN 0011-1570 • Graulund, Rune (2006), "Text and Paratext in Mark Z. Danielewski’s House of Leaves", Word and Image 22: 379–388, ISSN 0266-6286 • Hansen, Mark B. N. (Winter 2004), "The Digital Topography of Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves", Contemporary Literature 45 (4): 597–636, ISSN 0010-7484 • Hayles, N. Katherine (December 2002), "Saving the Subject: Remediation in House of Leaves", American Literature: A Journal of Literary History, Criticism, and Bibliography 74 (4): 779–806, ISSN 0002-9831 • McCaffery, Larry; Gregory, Sinda (Winter 2003), "Haunted House: An Interview with Mark Z. Danielewski", Critique: studies in contemporary fiction 44 (2): 99–135, doi:10.1080/00111610309599940, ISSN 0011-1619 • Pressman, Jessica (Spring 2006), "House of Leaves: Reading the Networked Novel", Studies in American Fiction 34 (1): 107–128, ISSN 0091-8083 • Slocombe, Will (Spring 2005), "'This Is Not for You': Nihilism and the House That Jacques Built", Modern Fiction Studies 51 (1): 88–109, doi:10.1353/mfs.2005.0015, ISSN 0026-7724
External links • • • • • •
House of Leaves [13] official forum Random House Readers Guide [14] Powells Books review [15] The Modern Word review [16] The Modern Word interview [17] "House of Leaves" [18], reviewed by Ted Gioia (The New Canon [19])
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House of Leaves
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References [1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 41641311 [2] One such footnote references Not True, Man: Mi Ata Beni? by Eta Ruccalla. Another references "All Accurate" by Nam Eurtton. Note that "Eta Ruccalla" is "All Accurate" backwards, and "Nam Eurtton" is "Not True, Man" backwards. For more examples of fictional books referenced in House of Leaves, see list of fictional books. [3] Wittmershaus, Eric (2000-05-06), "Flak Magazine" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=House_of_Leaves& action=edit. html), Profile, , retrieved 2008-07-19 [4] Poole, Steven (2000-07-15), "Gothic scholar" (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ critics/ reviews/ 0,5917,343421,00. html), Guardian Unlimited, , retrieved 2007-03-04 [5] Borges: Influence and References: Mark Z. Danielewski (http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ borges/ borges_infl_danielewski. html). Retrieved March 15, 2007. [6] http:/ / www. experiencefestival. com/ a/ Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu/ id/ 1928525 [7] Exploration Z (http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ features/ guide/ index. html), , retrieved 2010-06-06 [8] Reader's Guide (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ catalog/ display. pperl?isbn=9780375703768& view=rg), Random House, , retrieved 2007-02-10 [9] DanSRose (2006-05-22), "Comprehensive guide to printings/editions/ISBNs etc." (http:/ / www. houseofleaves. com/ forum/ showpost. php?p=79391& postcount=110), MZD Forums, , retrieved 2007-02-10 [10] Wittmershaus, Eric (2000-05-06), "Review of House of Leaves" (http:/ / www. flakmag. com/ books/ house. html), Flak Magazine, , retrieved 2007-02-10 [11] http:/ / www. imageandnarrative. be/ inarchive/ uncanny/ nelebemong. htm [12] http:/ / www. arts. usyd. edu. au/ publications/ philament/ issue2_Critique_Brick. htm [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]
http:/ / www. houseofleaves. com/ forum/ forumdisplay. php?f=3 http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ reader. html http:/ / www. powells. com/ biblio/ 1-0375703764-0 http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ review_house_of_leaves. html http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ borges/ Flak%20Magazine-Danielewski. html http:/ / www. thenewcanon. com/ house_of_leaves. html http:/ / www. thenewcanon. com
Mark Z. Danielewski Mark Z. Danielewski (born March 5, 1966) is an American author. Best known for his debut novel House of Leaves (2000), Danielewski's work is characterized by experimental choices in form, such as intricate and multi-layered narratives, typographical variation, and inconsistent page layouts, otherwise known as visual writing or Ergodic literature.
Biography Danielewski was born in New York City,[1] the son of Polish avant-garde film director Tad Danielewski and the brother of singer/songwriter Annie Decatur Danielewski, a.k.a. Poe.
Mark Danielewski
Danielewski studied English Literature at Yale. He then decided to move to Berkeley, California, where he took a summer program in Latin at the University of California, Berkeley. He also spent time in Paris, preoccupied mostly with writing. In the early 1990s, he pursued graduate studies at the USC School of Cinema-Television. He later served as an assistant editor and worked on sound for Derrida,[2] a documentary based on the life of the Algerian-born French literary critic and philosopher Jacques Derrida.
Mark Z. Danielewski House of Leaves, Danielewski's first novel, has gained a considerable cult following and won numerous awards, including the New York Public Library's Young Lions Fiction Award. His second novel, Only Revolutions, was released in 2006. Though released to less critical acclaim than his debut, the novel was a finalist for the 2006 National Book Award. In 2000, Danielewski toured with his sister across America at Borders Books and Music locations, promoting Poe’s album Haunted, which reflects elements of House of Leaves. He is a fan of Biffy Clyro as the band discovered when Danielewski attended one of their shows after they borrowed the title of his novel Only Revolutions for their own album.[3]
Books • • • •
March 2000: House of Leaves October 2000: The Whalestoe Letters October 2005: The Fifty Year Sword September 2006: Only Revolutions
References • McCaffery, Larry & Gregory, Sinda. "Haunted House: An Interview with Mark Z. Danielewski" from Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, Vol. 44, No. 2, Winter 2003: 99-135.
External links • • • • • • • •
Mark Z. Danielewski Forum [4] Mark Z. Danielewski [5] at the Internet Movie Database Interview [6], Flak Magazine Book Reporter interview [7] LAist interview [8] Guardian interview [9] Exploration Z [10] The Ledge interview [11], on The Fifty Year Sword
References [1] "Mark Danielewski" (http:/ / www. pen. org/ author. php/ prmAID/ 648). PEN American Center. 2010. . Retrieved June 1, 2010. [2] DerridaTheMovie.com (http:/ / www. derridathemovie. com/ info. html) [3] Simon Neil meets with Eve Jackson (http:/ / www. france24. com/ en/ 20100831-2010-08-31-1714-wb-en-culture-Biffy-Clyro-Simon-Neil). France 24. 1 September 2010. [4] http:/ / www. onlyrevolutions. com/ [5] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0199767/ [6] http:/ / flakmag. com/ features/ mzd. html [7] http:/ / www. bookreporter. com/ authors/ au-danielewski-mark. asp [8] http:/ / laist. com/ 2007/ 10/ 23/ laist_interview_55. php [9] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ firstbook2000/ story/ 0,6194,405144,00. html [10] http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ [11] http:/ / www. the-ledge. com/ flash/ ledge. php?conversation=45& lan=UK
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Some Themes House A house is a home, shelter, building or structure that is a dwelling or place for habitation by human beings. The term includes many kinds of dwellings ranging from rudimentary huts of nomadic tribes to free standing individual structures.[1] In some contexts, "house" may mean the same as dwelling, residence, home, abode, lodging, accommodation, or housing, among other meanings. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household. Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, though households can be other social groups, such as single persons, or groups of unrelated individuals. Settled agrarian and industrial societies are composed of household units living permanently in housing of various types, according to a variety of forms of land tenure. English-speaking people generally call any building they routinely occupy "home". Many people leave their houses during the day for work and recreation, and return to them to sleep or for other activities.
A ranch style house in Salinas, California, United States
History The English word house is derived from the proto-Germanic hud-dos, thought possibly to be a derivative of the verbal root hûd ‘to hide’ (see OED, s.v. house). Terms in other languages show varying derivations.
Example of an early Victorian "Gingerbread House" in Connecticut, United States, built in 1855
The oldest house in the world is approximately from 10,000 BC and was made of mammoth bones, found at Mezhirich near Kiev in Ukraine. It was probably covered with mammoth hides. The house was discovered in 1965 by a farmer digging a new basement six feet below the ground.[2] Architect Norbert Schoenauer, in his book 6,000 Years of Housing, identifies three major categories of types of housing: the "Pre-Urban" house, the "Oriental Urban" house, and the "Occidental Urban" house. Types of Pre-Urban houses include temporary dwellings such as the Inuit igloo, semi-permanent dwellings such as the pueblo, and permanent dwellings such as the New England homestead.
A Yurt near the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains (in the background); part of Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park.
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"Oriental Urban" houses include houses of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and traditional urban houses in China, India, and Islamic cities. "Occidental Urban" houses include medieval urban houses, the Renaissance town house, and the houses, tenements and apartments of the 19th and 20th centuries. Houses of that time were generally made of simple and raw materials (rocks, sticks, woven cloth, etc.)[1]
Structure The developed world in general features three basic types of house that have their own ground-level entry and private open space, and usually on a separately titled parcel of land: • Single-family detached houses – free-standing on all sides. • Semi-detached houses (duplexes) – houses that are attached, usually to only one other house via a party wall. • Terraced house (UK), also known as a row house or townhouse – attached to other houses, possibly in a row, each separated by a party wall.
Wooden chalets in the Swiss Alps, Switzerland.
In addition, there are various forms of attached housing where a number of dwelling units are co-located within the same structure, which share a ground-level entry and may or may not have any private open space, such as apartments (a.k.a. flats) of various scales. Another type of housing is movable, such as houseboats, caravans, and trailer homes. In the United Kingdom, 27% of the population live in terraced houses and 32% in semi-detached houses, as of 2002. In the United States as of 2000, 61.4% of people live in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, 26% in row houses or apartments, and 7% in mobile homes.
Function Some houses transcend the basic functionality of providing "a roof over one's head" or of serving as a family "hearth and home". When a house becomes a display-case for wealth and/or fashion and/or conspicuous consumption, we may speak of a "great house". The residence of a feudal lord or of a ruler may require defensive structures and thus turn into a fort or a castle. The house of a monarch may come to house courtiers and officers as well as the royal family: this sort of A Nalukettu traditional Kerala house in India house may become a palace. Moreover, in time the lord or monarch may wish to retreat to a more personal or simple space such as a villa, a hunting lodge or a dacha. Compare the popularity of the holiday house or cottage, also known as a crib. In contrast to a relatively upper class or modern trend to ownership of multiple houses, much of human history shows the importance of multi-purpose houses. Thus the house long served as the traditional place of work (the original cottage industry site or "in-house" small-scale manufacturing workshop) or of commerce (featuring, for example, a ground floor "shop-front" shop or counter or office, with living space above). During the Industrial Revolution there was a separation of manufacturing and banking from the house, though to this day some shopkeepers continue (or have returned) to live "over the shop".
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Inside the house Layout Ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as "interior design", has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui, originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and micro-climates, has recently expanded its scope to address the design of interior spaces with a view to promoting harmonious effects on the people living inside the house. Feng shui can also mean the "aura" in or around a dwelling. Compare the real-estate sales concept of "indoor-outdoor flow". The square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of "living space", excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The "square metres" figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the walls enclosing the home, and thus includes any attached garage and non-living spaces. Traditional house in southern Brazil.
Parts Many houses have several rooms with specialized functions. These may include a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if suitable facilities and services exist) washing and lavatory areas. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock (like cattle) often share part of the house with human beings. Most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen (or kitchen area), and a living room. A typical "foursquare house" (as pictured) occurred commonly in the early history of the United States of America where they were mainly Floor plan of a "foursquare" house built, with a staircase in the center of the house, surrounded by four rooms, and connected to other sections of the house (including in more recent eras a garage). The names of parts of a house often echo the names of parts of other buildings, but could typically include:
House
• • • • •
17 Atrium Attic Alcove Basement/cellar Bathroom (in various senses of the word) • •
• • • • •
Bath/shower Toilet
Bedroom (or nursery, for infants or small children) Box-room / storage room Conservatory Dining room Family room or den •
• • • •
•
Fireplace (for warmth during winter; generally not found in warmer climates)
Foyer Front room (in various senses of the phrase) Garage Hallway / passage / Vestibule
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Hearth – often an important symbolic focus of family togetherness Kitchen Larder Laundry room Library Living room Loft Nook Window Office or study Pantry Parlour Pew/porch Recreation room / rumpus room / television room Shrines to serve the religious functions associated with a family Stairwell Sunroom Workshop
Some houses have a pool in the background, or a trampoline, or a playground.
Construction
The structure of the house (under demolition). This house is constructed from bricks and wood and was later covered by insulating panels. The roof construction is also seen.
In the United States, modern house-construction techniques include light-frame construction (in areas with access to supplies of wood) and adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction (in arid regions with scarce wood-resources). Some areas use brick almost exclusively, and quarried stone has long provided walling. To some extent, aluminum and steel have displaced some traditional building materials. Increasingly popular alternative construction materials include insulating concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing and heavy-gauge steel framing.
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More generally, people often build houses out of the nearest available material, and often tradition and/or culture govern construction-materials, so whole towns, areas, counties or even states/countries may be built out of one main type of material. For example, a large fraction of American houses use wood, while most British and many European houses utilize stone or brick. In the 1900s, some house designers started using prefabrication. Sears, Roebuck & Co. first marketed their Sears Catalog Homes to the general public in 1908. Prefab techniques became popular after World War II. First small inside rooms framing, then later, whole walls were prefabricated and carried to the construction site. The original impetus was to use the labor force inside a shelter during inclement weather. More recently builders have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use computers and finite element analysis to design prefabricated steel-framed homes with known resistance to high wind-loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and possibly accelerated construction processes.
The Saitta House, Dyker Heights, Brooklyn, New York, United States built in 1899 is made of and [3] decorated in wood.
Lesser-used construction methods have gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Though not in wide use, these methods frequently appeal to homeowners who may become actively involved in the construction process. They include: • Cannabrick construction • Cordwood construction • Geodesic domes • Straw-bale construction • Wattle and daub
Energy-efficiency In the developed world, energy-conservation has grown in importance in house-design. Housing produces a major proportion of carbon emissions (30% of the total in the UK, for example). Development of a number of low-energy building types and techniques continues. They include the zero-energy house, the passive solar house, the autonomous buildings, the superinsulated and houses built to the Passivhaus standard.
Thermographic comparison of traditional (left) and "passivhaus" (right) buildings
House
Earthquake protection One tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation which is increasingly used for earthquake protection. Base isolation is a collection of structural elements of a building that should substantially decouple it from the shaking ground thus protecting the building's integrity[4] and enhancing its seismic performance. This technology, which is a kind of seismic vibration control, can be applied both to a newly designed building and to seismic upgrading of existing structures.[5] Normally, excavations are made around the building and the building is separated from the foundations. Steel or reinforced concrete beams replace the connections to the foundations, while under these, the isolating pads, or base isolators, replace the material removed. While the base isolation tends to restrict transmission of the ground motion to the building, it also keeps the building positioned properly over the foundation. Careful attention to detail is required where the building interfaces with the ground, especially at entrances, stairways and ramps, to ensure sufficient relative motion of those structural elements.
Legal issues Buildings with historical importance have restrictions.
United Kingdom New houses in the UK are not covered by the Sale of Goods Act. When purchasing a new house the buyer has less legal protection than when buying a new car. New houses in the UK may be covered by a NHBC guarantee but some people feel that it would be more useful to put new houses on the same legal footing as other products.
United States and Canada In the US and Canada, many new houses are built in housing tracts, which provide homeowners a sense of "belonging" and the feeling they have "made the best use" of their money. However, these houses are sometimes built as cheaply and quickly as possible by large builders seeking to maximize profits. Many environmental health issues may be ignored or minimized in the construction of these structures. In one case in Benicia, California, a housing tract was built over an old landfill. Home buyers were never told, and only found out when some began having reactions to high levels of lead and chromium.
Identifying houses With the growth of dense settlement, humans designed ways of identifying houses and/or parcels of land. Individual houses sometimes acquire proper names; and those names may acquire in their turn considerable emotional connotations: see for example the house of Howards End or the castle of Brideshead Revisited. A more systematic and general approach to identifying houses may use various methods of house numbering.
Animal houses Humans often build "houses" for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include bird-houses, hen-houses/chicken-coops and doghouses (kennels); while housed agricultural animals more often live in barns and stables. However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bat-houses, nesting-sites for wild ducks and other birds, bee houses, giraffe houses, kangaroo houses, worm houses, hermit crab houses, as well as shelters for many other animals.
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Shelter Forms of (relatively) simple shelter may include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Bus stop Camper Chalet Cottage Dugout Gazebo Hangar Houseboat Hut Lean-to Log Cabin Shack Tent (see also camp) Caravan
A modern style house in Canberra, Australia
• Umbrella • Yaodong
Houses and symbolism Houses may express the circumstances or opinions of their builders or their inhabitants. Thus a vast and elaborate house may serve as a sign of conspicuous wealth, whereas a low-profile house built of recycled materials may indicate support of energy conservation. Houses of particular historical significance (former residences of the famous, for example, or even just very old houses) may gain a protected status in town planning as examples of built heritage and/or of streetscape values. Commemorative plaques may mark such structures. Home ownership provides a common measure of prosperity in economics. Contrast the importance of house-destruction, tent dwelling and house rebuilding in the wake of many natural disasters. Peter Olshavsky's House for the Dance of Death [6] provides a 'pataphysical variation on the house.
Heraldry The house occurs as a rare charge in heraldry.
See also Institutions • U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development • Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse • HUD USER Economics • Affordable housing • Housing bubble • United States housing bubble • Housing tenure
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Functions • Building science • Mixed-use development • Visitability Types • • • • • • • • • •
Boarding house Earth sheltering Home automation Housing estate Housing in Japan Hurricane proof house Lodging Lustron house Mobile home Modular home
Miscellaneous • Domestic robot • Housewarming party • Squatting Lists • • • • •
List of famous American Houses List of house styles List of house types List of human habitation forms List of real estate topics
External links • Housing [7] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Schoenauer, Norbert (2000). 6,000 Years of Housing (rev. ed.) (New York: W.W. Norton & Company). Gregorovich, Andrew (1994). "Ancient Inventions of Ukraine" (http:/ / www. infoukes. com/ history/ inventions/ ). . Saitta House - Report Part 1 (http:/ / www. dykerheightscivicassociation. com/ saittareport. pdf) YouTube - Testing of a New Line of Seismic Base Isolators (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=HuSiRRoz72Y& feature=related) James M. Kelly, Professor Emeritus Civil and Environmental Engineering. "Base Isolation: Origins and Development" (http:/ / nisee. berkeley. edu/ lessons/ kelly. html). National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. . [6] http:/ / www. mcgill. ca/ files/ architecture-theory/ olshavsky. pdf [7] http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ us/ housing. htm
Stairway
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Stairway Stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs or simply stairs are names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairways may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles. Special stairways include escalators and ladders. Alternatives to stairways are elevators, stairlifts and inclined moving sidewalks as well as stationary inclined sidewalks.
Components and terminology Step The step is composed of the tread and riser. Tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The tread "depth" is measured from the outer edge of the step to the vertical "riser" between steps. The "width" is measured from one side to the other.
Antique Theater staircase with multiple repairs of feet-worn stairs
Riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be missing for an "open" stair effect. Nosing
A straight stairway with tiled treads, a double railing and two landings.
An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If it is present, this means that horizontally, the total "run" length of the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, the treads actually overlap each other slightly Starting step or Bullnose Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above the lower floor may be wider than the other steps and rounded. The balusters typically form a semicircle around the circumference of the rounded portion and the handrail has a horizontal spiral called a "volute" that supports the top of the The simplest form of staircase, down to Man balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal, starting steps allow the o'War Cove, Dorset, England balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the end of the handrail. Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less sturdy, even with a thick post. A double bullnose can be used when both sides of the stairs are open. Stringer, Stringer board or sometimes just String
Stairway
23 The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There are typically two stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads may be supported many other ways. The stringers are sometimes notched so that the risers and treads fit into them. Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open themselves so that the treads are visible from the side. Such stringers are called "cut" stringers. Stringers on a closed side of the stairs are closed, with the support for the treads routed into the stringer.
Winders Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are used to change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of winders form a circular or spiral stairway. When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is called a kite winder as a kite-shaped quadrilateral.
A Stairway with a landing in the middle.
Trim Trim (e.g. quarter-round or baseboard trim) is normally applied where walls meet floors and often underneath treads to hide the reveal where the tread and riser meet. Shoe moulding may be used between where the lower floor and the first riser meet. Trimming a starting step is a special challenge as the last riser above the lower floor is rounded. Flexible, plastic trim is available for this purpose, however wooden mouldings are still used and are either cut from a single piece of rounded wood, or bent with laminations Scotia is concave moulding that is underneath the nosing between the riser and the tread above it.
A wide shot of the massacre on the "Odessa Steps" from The Battleship Potemkin (1925).
The railing system The balustrade is the system of railings and balusters that prevents people from falling over the edge. Banister, Railing or Handrail The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical balusters which hold it up for stairs that are open on one side; there is often a railing on both sides, sometimes only on one side or not at all, on wide staircases there is sometimes also one in the middle, or even more. The term "banister" is sometimes used to mean just the handrail, or sometimes the handrail and the balusters or sometimes just the balusters.[1] Volute A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral. A volute is said to be right or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs. Turnout
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24 Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout is a quarter-turn rounded end to the handrail.
Gooseneck The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck. Rosette Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be trimmed by a rosette. Easings Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the horizontal portion of the railing is called a "over easing". Core rail Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
Example of Winder Stairs
Baluster A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail. Sometimes simply called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle. Newel
Staircase between levels at Cabot Circus shopping centre, Bristol, England, United Kingdom. A sitting area is provided on the right of the staircase proper.
A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a decorative newel drop. Baserail or Shoerail For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster problem. Fillet A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing. Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately "newel-to-newel"). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to
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cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails. Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.
Other terminology Balcony For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing. In modern homes, it is common to have hardwood floors on the first floor and carpet on the second. The homeowner should consider using hardwood nosing in place of carpet. Should the carpet be subsequently replaced with hardwood, the balcony balustrade may have to be removed to add the nosing. Flight A flight is an uninterrupted series of steps. Floating stairs A flight of stairs is said to be "floating" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.
Historical photo of a staircase in the Ford plant in Los Angeles with a double bullnose and two volutes. The photo also shows an intermediate landing as part of this U-shaped stair.
Landing or Platform A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of the stair between main floor levels and is typically used to allow stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. As intermediate landings consume floor space they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. Runner Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by specialized bar that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser. Spandrel If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a "spandrel". It is frequently used as a closet. Staircase This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "stairway". In the UK, however, the term "staircase" denotes what in the U.S. is called "stairway", but usually includes the casing - the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or roof above. Stairway
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26 This term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "staircase".
Measurements Stair measurements: • The rise height or rise of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter excludes the thickness of the tread. A person using the stairs would move this distance vertically for each step they take. • The tread depth is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser. • The going is measured from the edge of the nosing to the edge of nosing in plan view. A person using the stairs would move this distance forward with each step they take. • The total run or total going of the stairs is the horizontal distance from the first riser to the last riser. It is often not simply the sum of the individual tread lengths due to the nosing overlapping between treads. • The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning. • The slope or pitch of the stairs is the total rise divided by the total run (not the individual riser and treads due to the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the nosing of the treads. In the UK, stair pitch is measured in degrees from the horizontal. • Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it. • Walkline - for curved stairs, the inner radius of the curve may result in very narrow treads. The "walkline" is the imaginary line some distance away from the inner edge on which people are expected to walk. Building code will specify the distance. Building codes will then specify the minimum tread size at the walkline. • To avoid confusion, the number of steps in a set of stairs is always the number of risers, not the number of treads. The easiest way to calculate the rise and run is to use a stair stringer calculator [2].
Ergonomics and building code requirements Ergonomically and for safety reasons, stairs have to have certain measurements in order for people to comfortably use them. Building codes will typically specify certain measurements so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow. Building codes will specify:[3] • Minimum tread length, typically 9 inches (230 mm) excluding the nosing for private residences.[4] However, most human feet are longer than this, thus people's feet don't actually fit on the tread of the step. • Maximum riser height, typically 8.25 inches (210 mm). Note that by specifying the maximum riser height and minimum tread length, a maximum slope is established. Residential building codes will typically allow for steeper stairs than public building codes. • Minimum riser height: Some building codes also specify a minimum riser height, often 5 inches (130 mm). • Riser-Tread formula: Sometimes the stair parameters will be something like riser + tread equals 17–18 inches (430–460 mm)[5] or another formula is 2 times riser + tread equals 24 inches (610 mm). Thus a 7 inches (180 mm) rise and a 10 inches (250 mm) tread exactly meets this code. If only a 2 inches (51 mm) rise is used then a 20 inches (510 mm) tread is required. This is based on the principle that a low rise is more like walking up a gentle incline and so the natural swing of the leg will be longer. This makes low rise stairs very expensive in terms of the space consumed. Such low rise stairs were built into the Winchester Mystery House to accommodate the infirmities of the owner, Sarah Winchester, before the invention of the elevator. These stairways, called "Easy Risers" consist of five flights wrapped into a multi turn arrangement with a total width equal to more than four times the individual flight width and a depth roughly equal to one flight's run plus this width. The flights have
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• • • • • • • • • • •
varying numbers of steps. Variance on riser height and tread depth between steps on the same flight should be very low. Building codes require variances no larger than 0.1875 inches (4.76 mm) between depth of adjacent treads or the height of adjacent risers; within a flight, the tolerance between the largest and smallest riser or between the largest and smallest tread can not exceed 0.375 inches (9.5 mm).[6] The reason is that on a continuous flight of stairs, people get used to a regular step and may trip if there is a step that is different, especially at night. The general rule is that all steps on the same flight must be identical. Hence, stairs are typically custom made to fit the particular floor to floor height and horizontal space available. Special care must be taken on the first and last risers. Stairs must be supported directly by the subfloor. If thick flooring (e.g. thick hardwood planks) are added on top of the subfloor, it will cover part of the first riser, reducing the effective height of the first step. Likewise at the top step, if the top riser simply reaches the subfloor and thick flooring is added, the last rise at the top may be higher than the last riser. The first and last riser heights of the rough stairs are modified to adjust for the addition of the finished floor. Maximum nosing protrusion, typically 1.25 inches (32 mm) to prevent people from tripping on the nosing. Height of the handrail. This is typically between 34 and 38 inches (860 and 970 mm), measured to the nose of the tread. The minimum height of the handrail for landings may be different and is typically 36 inches (910 mm). Handrail diameter. The size has to be comfortable for grasping and is typically between 1.25 and 2.675 inches (32 and 67.9 mm). Maximum space between the balusters of the handrail. This is typically 4 inches (100 mm). Openings (if they exist) between the bottom rail and treads are typically no bigger than 6 inches (150 mm). Minimum headroom Maximum vertical height between floors or landings. This allows people to rest and limits the height of a fall. Mandate handrails if there is more than a certain number of steps (typically 2 risers) Minimum width of the stairway, with and without handrails Not allow doors to swing over steps; the arc of doors must be completely on the landing/floor. A Stairwell may be designated as an Area of refuge as well as a fire escape route, due to its fire-resistance rated design and fresh air supply.
Jacques-François Blondel in his 1771 Cours d'architecture[7] was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions.[8] He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.[9] It is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses.[10] Some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury. Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs. A chair is attached to the rail and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail.
Forms Stairs can take a large number of forms, combining winders and landings. The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, without any winders nor landings. It is not often used in modern homes because: • the upstairs is directly visible from the bottom of a straight flight of stairs. • it is potentially more dangerous in that a fall is not interrupted until the bottom of the stairs. • a straight flight requires enough space for the entire run of the stairs. However, a straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings. Additionally, the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place.
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Most modern stairs incorporate at least one landing. "L" shaped stairways have one landing and usually change in direction by 90 degrees. "U" shaped stairs may employ a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180 degrees, or 2 landings for two changes in direction of 90 degrees each. Use of landings and a possible change of direction have the following effects: • The upstairs is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, which can provide more privacy for the upper floor. • A fall can be arrested at the landing. • Though the landings consume total floor space, there is no requirement for a large single dimension, allowing more flexible floorplan designs. • For larger stairs, particularly in exterior applications, a landing can provide a place to rest the legs.
Spiral and helical stairs Spiral stairs wind around a central pole. They typically have a handrail on the outer side only, and on the inner side just the central pole. A squared spiral stair assumes a square stairwell and expands the steps and railing to a square, resulting in unequal steps (larger where they extend into a corner of the square). A pure spiral assumes a circular stairwell and the steps and handrail are equal and positioned screw-symmetrically. A tight spiral stair with a central pole is very space efficient in the use of floor area. The term "spiral" is used incorrectly for a staircase from a mathematical viewpoint, as a mathematical spiral lies in a single plane and moves towards or away from a central point. A spiral staircase by the mathematical definition therefore would be of little use as it would afford no change in elevation. The correct mathematical term for motion where the locus remains at a fixed distance from a fixed line whilst moving in a circular motion about it is "helix". The presence or otherwise of a central pole does not affect the terminology applied to the design of the structure. Spiral stairs in medieval times were generally made of stone and typically wound in a clockwise direction (from the ascendor's point of view),[11] in order to place at a disadvantage attacking swordsmen who were most often right-handed). This asymmetry forces the right-handed swordsman to engage the central pike and degrade his mobility compared with the defender who is facing down the stairs. Extant 14th to 17th century examples of these stairways can be seen at Muchalls Castle, Crathes Castle and Myres Castle in Scotland. Exceptions to the rule exist, however, as may be seen in the above image of the Scala of the Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo, which winds up anti-clockwise.
A spiral staircase inside Cremona's Torrazzo, Italy.
Upward view of the Tulip Stairs & lantern at the Queen's House, Greenwich, United Kingdom.
Developments in manufacturing and design have led to the introduction of kit form spiral stair. Steps and handrails can be bolted together to form a complete unit. These stairs can be made out of steel, timber, concrete or a combination of materials.
Stairway
Spiral stairway seen from below; Melk Abbey, Austria.
29 Helical or circular stairs do not have a central pole and there is a handrail on both sides. These have the advantage of a more uniform tread width when compared to the spiral staircase. Such stairs may also be built around an elliptical or oval planform. A double helix is possible, with two independent helical stairs in the same vertical space, allowing one person to ascend and another to descend, without ever meeting if they choose different helixes (examples : Château de Chambord, Château de Blois, Crédit Lyonnais headquarters in Paris). Fire escapes, though built with landings and straight runs of stairs, are often functionally double helixes, with two separate stairs intertwinned and occupying the same floor space. This is often in support of legal requirements to have two separate fire escapes.
Both spiral and helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A "quarter-turn" stair deposits the person facing 90 degrees from the starting orientation. Likewise there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn and full-turn stairs. A continuous spiral may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi turn spiral staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches and in lighthouses. Winders may be used in combination with straight stairs to turn the direction of the stairs. This allows for a large number of permutations. History The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BC.[12]
Alternating tread stairs Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs allow for safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs which are almost always less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that An alternating Duplo tread stair (center) between people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such a half-width stair (left) and full-width stair (right). short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed. The image on the right illustrates the space efficiency gained by an alternating tread stair. The alternating tread stair appearing on the
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30 image's center, with green-colored treads. The alternating stair requires one unit of space per step: the same as the half-width step on its left, and half as much as the full-width stair on its right. Thus, the horizontal distance between steps is in this case reduced by a factor of two reducing the size of each step. The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for constructional reasons there are narrow "unused" steps. There is often (here also) glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step. Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888.[13]
An alternating tread stair climbing the steep slope of a pinnacle in Pinnacles National Monument, California, United States.
Notable stairways • The longest stairway is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the service stairway for the Niesenbahn funicular railway near Spiez, Switzerland, with 11,674 steps and a height of 1669 m (5476 ft).[14] The stairs are employee-only. • A flight of 7,200 steps (including inner temple Steps), with 6,293 Official Mountain Walkway Steps, leads up the East Peak of Mount Tai in China. • The Haʻikū Stairs, on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, are approximately 4,000 steps which climb nearly 1/2 of a mile. Originally used to access longwire radio radio antennas which were strung high above the Haʻikū Valley, between Honolulu and Kāneʻohe, they are closed to hikers. • The Flørli stairs, in Lysefjorden, Norway, have 4,444 wooden steps which climb from sea level to 740 meters. It is a maintenance stairway for the water pipeline to the old Flørli hydro plant. The hydro plant is now closed down, and the stairs are open to the public. The stairway is claimed to be the longest wooden stairway in the world.[15]
The world's longest stairway at the Niesenbahn funicular in Switzerland has 11,674 steps
• The CN Tower's staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps and the Sky Pod above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth. • The Penrose stairs, devised by Lionel and Roger Penrose, are a famous impossible object. The image distorts perspective in such a manner that the stairs appear to be never-ending, a physical impossibility. The image was adopted by M. C. Escher in his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.
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Image in art Stairway is a metaphor of achievement or loss of a position in the society, a metaphor of hierarchy (e.g. Jacob's Ladder, The Battleship Potemkin).
Gallery
Spiral (double helix) stairs of the Vatican Museums
Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Modified stairway for the elderly in Thailand.
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The Potemkin Stairs (1834–41) in Odessa, Ukraine.
Spiral stairs with ornamental balusters.
Stairs of rock placed in a natural passage.
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Outdoor stairway on the Alameda Ridge in Portland, Oregon, United States.
Emperor's Stairs in the Residenz of Munich, Bavaria, Germany.
The 19th century theatre of Weißenhorn, Germany.
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External spiral in the Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo in Venice, Italy.
Endless stairway at KPMG, Munich, Germany.
Ascending and descending, lithograph by M.C. Escher depicting penrose stairs.
Stairway
See also • • • • •
Fire escape Fish ladder Stair climbing Steel square for use in stair framing. Cable railings
References [1] http:/ / m-w. com/ cgi-bin/ dictionary?book=Dictionary& va=banister [2] http:/ / www. homeconstructionimprovement. com/ 2008/ 06/ stair-stringer-calculator. html [3] http:/ / www. amezz. com/ ibc-stairs-code. htm [4] State of California (http:/ / www. dir. ca. gov/ title8/ 3231. html) [5] http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ how_to_central/ home_clinic/ 1275341. html [6] NFPA 101 Life Safety Code Handbook Tenth Edition 2006, Coté and Harrington, ISBN 0-87765-697-5, pg.167 [7] http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ bl/ BlondelF. html [8] http:/ / 97. 1911encyclopedia. org/ S/ ST/ STAIRCASE. htm [9] http:/ / www. generativeart. com/ 2000/ KOUTAMANIS_GA_2000. HTM [10] http:/ / www. toolbase. org/ Best-Practices/ Codes-Regulations-Standards/ stair-safety [11] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A506611 Spiral stairways in medieval times clockwise [12] Ruggeri, Stefania: „Selinunt“, Edizioni Affinità Elettive, Messina 2006, ISBN 88-8405-079-0, p. 77 [13] Moncktons One Plane Method Of Hand Railing and Stair Building, Copyright 1888 by James H. Monckton, Published by John Wiley & Sons,1891. Plate 2 ,Figure 4 [14] http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ gwr5/ content_pages/ record. asp?recordid=49700 [15] http:/ / www. lysefjordeninfo. no/ en/
Maze A maze is a tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage through which the solver must find a route. In everyday speech, both maze and labyrinth denote a complex and confusing series of pathways, but technically the maze is distinguished from the labyrinth, as the labyrinth has a single through-route with twists and turns but without branches, and is not designed to be as difficult to navigate.[1] The pathways and walls in a maze or labyrinth are fixed (pre-determined) – puzzles where the walls and paths can change during the game are categorised as tour puzzles. The Cretan labyrinth is the oldest known maze.[2]
Maze construction Mazes have been built with walls and rooms, with hedges, turf, corn stalks, hay bales,cheese, potatos,old shoes books, paving stones of contrasting colors or designs, bricks and turf,[3] or in fields of crops such as corn or, indeed, maize. Maize mazes can be very large; they are usually only kept for one growing season, so they can be different every year, and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions. Indoors, Mirror Mazes are another form of maze, where many of the apparent pathways are imaginary routes seen through multiple reflections in mirrors. Another type of maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors (so a passageway is just another room in this definition). Players enter at one spot, and exit at another, or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze. Mazes can also be printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip.
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A small maze.
Classical labyrinth.
A computer-generated maze.
Generating mazes Maze generation is the act of designing the layout of passages and walls within a maze. There are many different approaches to generating mazes, where various maze generation algorithms exist for building them, either by hand or automatically by computer. There are two main mechanisms used to generate mazes. "Carving passages" is where one marks out the network of available routes. "Adding walls" is where one lays out a set of obstructions within an open area. Most mazes drawn on paper are where one draws the walls, where the spaces in between the markings compose the passages.
Solving mazes Maze solving is the act of finding a route through the maze from the start to finish. Some maze solving methods are designed to be used inside the maze by a traveler with no prior knowledge of the maze, whereas others are designed to be used by a person or computer program that can see the whole maze at once. The mathematician Leonhard Euler was one of the first to analyze plane mazes mathematically, and in doing so made the first significant contributions to the branch of mathematics known as topology. Mazes containing no loops are known as "standard", or "perfect" mazes, and are equivalent to a tree in graph theory. Thus many maze solving algorithms are closely related to graph theory. Intuitively, if one pulled and stretched out the paths in the maze in the proper way, the result could be made to resemble a tree.[4]
Mazes in psychology experiments Mazes are often used in psychology experiments to study spatial navigation and learning. Such experiments typically use rats or mice. Examples are • the Barnes maze • the Morris water maze • the radial arm maze.
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Other types of mazes Logic mazes See Logic maze. These are like standard mazes except they use rules other than "don't cross the lines" to restrict motion. Mazes in higher dimensions It is possible for a maze to have three or more dimensions. A maze with bridges is three dimensional, and some natural cave systems are three dimensional mazes. The computer game Descent utilized fully three dimensional mazes. Any maze can be topologically mapped onto a three-dimensional maze. Picture maze See Picture maze. A maze that forms a picture when solved. Ball-in-a-maze puzzles Dexterity puzzles which involve navigating a ball through a maze or labyrinth. Dead end maze A maze game where the route creates the dead ends. Turf mazes and Mizmazes A pattern like a long rope folded up, without any junctions or crossings. Loops and Traps Maze
A plan of a Loops and Traps maze, Ridgewood, NJ
A maze that features one-way doors. The doors can lead to the correct path or create traps that divert you from the correct path and lead you to the starting point. You may not return through a door which you have entered. The path is a series of loops interrupted by doors. The maze is not created with dead ends, but dead ends are created by doors that only open from the other side. The Halloween Maze in Ridgewood NJ is an example of this type of maze. Through the use of reciprocal doors, the correct path can intersect the incorrect path on a single plane.
Publications about mazes Numerous mazes of different kinds have been drawn, painted, published in books and periodicals, used in advertising, in software, and sold as art. In the 1970s there occurred a publishing "maze craze" in which numerous books, and some magazines, were commercially available in nationwide outlets and devoted exclusively to mazes of a complexity that was able to challenge adults as well as children (for whom simple maze puzzles have long been provided both before, during, and since the 1970s "craze"). Some of the best-selling books in the 1970s and early 1980s included those produced by Vladimir Koziakin,[5] Rick and Glory Brightfield, Dave Phillips, Larry Evans, and Greg Bright. Koziakin's works were predominantly of the standard two-dimensional "trace a line between the walls" variety. The works of the Brightfields had a similar two-dimensional form but used a variety of graphics-oriented "path obscuring" techniques - although the routing was comparable to or simpler than Koziakin's mazes, the Brightfield's mazes did not allow the various pathway options to be discerned so easily by the roving eye as it glanced about. Greg Bright's works went beyond the standard published forms of the time by including "weave" mazes in which illustrated pathways can cross over and under each other. Bright's works also offered examples of extremely complex patterns of routing and optical illusions for the solver to work through. What Bright termed "mutually accessible
Maze centers" (The Great Maze Book, 1973) also called "braid" mazes, allowed a proliferation of paths flowing in spiral patterns from a central nexus and, rather than relying on "dead ends" to hinder progress, instead relied on an overabundance of pathway choices. Rather than have a single solution to the maze, Bright's routing often offered multiple equally valid routes from start to finish, with no loss of complexity or diminishment of solver difficulties because the result was that it became difficult for a solver to definitively "rule out" a particular pathway as unproductive. Some of Bright's innovative mazes had no "dead ends" - although some clearly had looping sections (or "islands") that would cause careless explorers to keep looping back again and again to pathways they had already travelled. The books of Larry Evans focused on 3-D structures, often with realistic perspective and architectural themes, and Bernard Meyers (Supermazes No. 1) produced similar illustrations. Both Greg Bright (The Hole Maze Book) and Dave Phillips (The World's Most Difficult Maze) published maze books in which the sides of pages could be crossed over and in which holes could allow the pathways to cross from one page to another, and one side of a page to the other, thus enhancing the 3-D routing capacity of 2-D printed illustrations. Adrian Fisher is both the most prolific contemporary author on mazes, and also one of the leading maze designers. His book The Amazing Book of Mazes (2006) contains examples and photographs of numerous methods of maze construction, several of which have been pioneered by Fisher; The Art of the Maze (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1990) contains a substantial history of the subject, whilst Mazes and Labyrinths (Shire Publications, 2004) is a useful introduction to the subject. A recent book by Galen Wadzinski (The Ultimate Maze Book) offers formalized rules for more recent innovations that involve single-directional pathways, 3-D simulating illustrations, "key" and "ordered stop" mazes in which items must be collected or visited in particular orders to add to the difficulties of routing (such restrictions on pathway traveling and re-use are important in a printed book in which the limited amount of space on a printed page would otherwise place clear limits on the amount of choices and pathways that can be contained within a single maze). Although these innovations are not all entirely new with Wadzinski, the book marks a significant advancement in published maze puzzles, offering expansions on the traditional puzzles that seem to have been fully informed by various video game innovations and designs, and adds new levels of challenge and complexity in both the design and the goals offered to the puzzle-solver in a printed format.
Mazes open to the public Africa • Serendipity Maze, Mouille Point, Cape Town, South Africa. Hedge maze by the sea.[6] • Walkabout Mazes and Botanical Gardens,[7] Robertson, Western Cape, South Africa. 13870 m² net area Google Maps[8]
Asia India • Adham Khan's Tomb, Delhi, India • A maze inside Bara Imambara is there, which is famous as bhulbhulaiya and is also a popular as tourist place in Lucknow, India
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Dubai • Gardens Shopping Mall, Dubai (World's Largest Indoor Maze)[9] Japan • • • • •
Hikimi no Meiro,[10] Masuda, Shimane, Japan Kodama no Mori,[11] Kiso, Nagano, Japan Kyodai Meiro Palladium,[12] Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan Sendai Hi-Land,[13] Sendai, Miyagi, Japan Shirahama Energy Land,[14] Shirahama, Wakayama, Japan
Oceania Australia • • • •
The Maze [15], Perth, Western Australia[16] Ashcombe Maze, Shoreham, Victoria, Australia,[17] Mintaro Maze, Mintaro, South Australia,[18] A Maze'N Things,[19] Phillip Island (Victoria), Australia[20]
New Zealand • The Great Maze, The Puzzling World,[21] Wanaka, South Island (1.5 km of passages)
Europe Austria • Schönbrunn Palace, Austria (small entrance fee, tower at the center to overlook the hedge maze)[22] Germany • Altjeßnitz, Germany, Sachsen-Anhalt, near Dessau (hedge maze, c.1750) (51°41′35.7″N 12°19′23.9″E) • Aschaffenburg (Park Schönbusch), Germany, Bavaria (hedge maze, c.1829)(49°57′42″N 9°06′24″E) • Berlin (Erholungspark Marzahn), Germany (hedge maze)[23] • Erlebniswelt Hortus Vitalis - Der Irrgarten,[24] Bad Salzuflen, Germany, North-Rhine-Westphalia (hedge maze) • Hannover (Herrenhausen Gardens), Germany, Lower Saxony Greece • Palace of Knossos
Public hedge maze in the "English Garden" at Schönbusch Park, Aschaffenburg, Germany
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Italy • Villa Pisani, Stra, near Venice • Porsenna's Maze,[25] Chiusi, Tuscany (see Pliny's Italian labyrinth) Portugal • Parque de São Roque,[26] District of Porto[27] • Parque do Arnado,[28] Ponte de Lima, District of Viana do Castelo • Reserva Florestal de Recreio do Pinhal da Paz,[29] São Miguel Island, Azores
The labyrinth of Barvaux, Durbuy
Scandinavia • The Labyrinth in Moomin World, Finland • Labyrinttimaailma (Labyrinth world), Finland • Labyrinthia, Silkeborg, Denmark[30] • Samsø, Denmark,[31] [32] Spain • Amaze'n Laberintos, Spain, Majorca, Alcudia, Playa de Muro (wooden maze, 1998) • Parc del Laberint d'Horta, Barcelona, Spain (hedge maze)[33] • Labyrinth in the Way of Santiago - Spain [34] Laberinto del Camino de Santiago - España. UK
Inside the labyrinth of Villa Pisani
• Noah's Ark Zoo Farm, Bristol, England (longest hedge maze in the world, planted 2003)[35] • Alnwick Castle Water Gardens Bamboo Maze, Northumberland. Designed by Adrian Fisher • Blackpool Pleasure Beach Hedge Maze, Lancashire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher • Blake House Craft Centre, Braintree, Essex, England (Open July-September)[36] [37] • Blenheim Palace Hedge Maze, Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll Coate and Graham Burgess, 1991[38] • St. Catherine's Hill, Hampshire near Winchester, old "Miz-Maze" or "Mizmaze" (unusual square design; path is a narrow groove)[39] • Castlewellan, Northern Ireland, world's largest permanent hedge maze[40] [41] • Chatsworth House, England (hedge maze)[42] • The Crystal Palace, England. A hedge maze built into a copse[43] • Greys Court 'Archbishop's Maze', Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher, 1981[44] • Hampton Court Palace, England (hedge maze)[45] • Hoo Hill Maze, Shefford, Bedfordshire, England[46] [47] • Kentwell Hall, Long Melford, Suffolk, England. Designed Minotaur designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll Coate and Graham Burgess.
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• Leeds Castle, Maidstone, Kent, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs Randoll Coate, Adrian Fisher and Graham Burgess[48] • Longleat, Wiltshire, England: hedge maze, designed by Greg Bright, 1978, and mirror maze, designed by Adrian Fisher; Labyrinth of Love, Renaissance style Rose garden labyrinth designed by Graham Burgess. Sun and Moon Maze designed by Randoll Coate. • Murray Star Maze, Scone Palace, Perth, Scotland (hedge maze). Unusual Celtic-weave. Designed by Adrian Fisher[49] • Oak Lane Labyrinth, nr Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk. Open all year round. Free entry.[50] • Paulton's Park, Hampshire, England (hedge maze)[51] • Richings Park Amazing Maize Maze, Richings Park, near Heathrow, England (Open July-September)[52] • Saffron Walden, Essex, England (hedge maze),[53] (The town also has an historic turf maze) • Symonds Yat, Herefordshire, England[54] • Worden Park, Leyland, Lancashire, England[55]
North America • Magowan's Infinite Mirror Maze, Pier 39, San Francisco, California • Amazing Chicago's Funhouse Maze,[56] Navy Pier, Chicago, Illinois, USA. Designed by Jack Rouse Associates and Adrian Fisher • America's Largest Corn Maze, Shakopee, Minnesota, USA Sever's Corn Maze[57] • Children's maze (made out of packs of hay), Ashland Berry Farm, Ashland, Virginia, USA. • Davis' Mega Maze, Sterling, Massachusetts USA (3-D adventure corn maze). Designed by Adrian Fisher[58] • The Garden Maze at Luray Caverns, Luray, VA, USA
Public maze at Wild Adventures theme park, Valdosta, Georgia. It was removed before the 2010 season.
• Dole Plantation, Wahiawa, Hawaii, (21°31′29.5″N 158°2′14.9″W) home to the World's Largest Maze.[59] • Labyrinthe du Hangar 16, Montreal, Canada.[60] • Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (Charleston, South Carolina), USA • Maize Quest Fun Park[61] is the "Largest Collection of People-Sized Mazes in the World" with mazes made of fence, rope, stone, turf, corn, Invisible Dog Fencing, Straw Bales, Tiles, Living Bamboo, and Earthen Mounds. New Park, Pennsylvania, USA • Mall of Georgia Paving Mazes, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher
Maze at Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis
[62]
• Maze Mania , Garden City, South Carolina USA (Interchangeable fence Maze appropriate for children and adults) • McMaze,[63] St. Andrew's West, Ontario, Canada. Original corn maze designed by Sandy McDonald. • Mohonk Mountain House hedge maze, New Paltz, New York • Mystery Maze, Wild Adventures theme park, Valdosta, Georgia - manufactured by Amazin' Mazes. Removed before 2010 season. • Noah's Ark Water Park Mirror Maze, Wisconsin Dells, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher • Norton Museum of Art West Palm Beach, USA. Pavement Maze, Serpent Mound and Turf Labyrinth. Designed by Adrian Fisher.
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• Ridgewood Halloween Maze, Ridgewood, New Jersey, USA (Month of October, Loops and Traps Halloween-themed maze. Designed by Tyler Stewart.) Free attraction. • Saunders Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The largest collection of full-sized hedge mazes and labyrinths in North America (11). • Skyline Caverns Mirror Maze, Front Royal, Virginia, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher. • The Maze at the Governor's Palace, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, USA • The Maze on Centre Island, Toronto, Ontario, was a centennial gift to the city by its Dutch-Canadian community in 1967 (Topiary maze, open to public, free, year-round) • Trail of Terror, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA (annual event, 3/4 mile indoor Halloween-themed maze)[64] • Magical Mystery Mirror Maze, Mission Beach, San Diego, California, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher. • Monterey Mirror Maze, Monterey, California, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher. • Palace of Sweets Mirror Maze, Wildwood, New Jersey, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher.
Further reading • H. Abelson and A. diSessa, Turtle Geometry: The Computer as a Medium for Exploring Mathematics, MIT Press (1980) • Adrian Fisher, The Amazing Book of Mazes, Thames & Hudson, London / Harry N Abrams Inc, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0-500-51247-0 • Adrian Fisher, Armchair Puzzlers: Mad Mazes, University Books, San Francisco, USA (2005) ISBN 978-1-57528-978-6 • Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Follies, Jarrold Publishing, UK (2004) ISBN 978-1-84165-142-2 • Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Labyrinths, Shire Publications, UK (2003) ISBN 978-0-7478-0561-8 • Adrian Fisher and Howard Loxton, Secrets of the Maze, Thames & Hudson, London (1997) / Barron’s Educational Series Inc, New York (1998) ISBN 978-0-500-01811-8 • Adrian Fisher and Jeff Saward, The British Maze Guide, Minotaur Designs, St Albans, UK (1991) - the definitive guide to British Mazes • Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London (1990) ISBN 0-297-83027-9 • Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, Labyrinth - Solving the Riddle of the Maze, Harmony Books USA, New York (1990) ISBN 978-0-517-58099-8 • W. H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development[65] (1927). Includes Bibliography. [66] Dover Publications (1970) ISBN 0-486-22614-X • Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley (2002) ISBN 1-84000-573-4
See also • • • • • • •
Celtic maze Corn maze Crop circle Garden mazes (article in German Wikipedia) Hedge maze Logic Quest 3D Pac-Man
Maze
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External links • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
WikipediaMaze.com [67] Briefing Room [68] CNN's Barry Neild offers escape routes Cornmazedir.com [69] Directory of hundreds of mazes in the USA and Canada Images Mazes [70] Real mazes that look like an inkblot portrait Labyrinth Society [71] Labyrinthos [72] Jeff Saward's website Learn how to draw mazes [73] W. H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths (1922) [74] online version of W. H. Matthew's classic book Maze Algorithms [75] This site explains the different types of mazes and how to generate and solve them Multiplayer Maze Game [76] Flash-based free maze game in 2D 4D Maze Game [77] John McIntosh's Java-based free maze game in 3D and 4D first-perspective Times Online: Britain's best mazes [78] Ink Blot Mazes [79] Maze Artist, Yonatan Frimer's page of image mazes that mix art and mazes. Labyrinth Online [80] Quoridor.net [81] Board and online game where players build maze
References [1] Kern, Through the Labyrinth, p. 23. [2] AMS.org (http:/ / www. ams. org/ featurecolumn/ archive/ octo-cretan. html) [3] Lappa Valley Steam Railway - Trevithick Brick Path Maze (http:/ / www. lappavalley. co. uk/ maze. htm), Lappa Valley Steam Railway, , retrieved 13 June 2010 [4] Youtube.com (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=k1tSK5V1pds) [5] Mazes, Vladimir Koziakin (Grosset & Dunlap, 1971) ISBN 0-448-01836-5 [6] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?f=q& source=s_q& hl=en& geocode=& q=South+ Africa+ >>+ Western+ Cape+ >>+ Cape+ Town+ >>+ Mouille+ Point& sll=-38. 487703,145. 26178& sspn=0. 001468,0. 001306& gl=au& ie=UTF8& hq=& hnear=Mouille+ Point,+ Cape+ Town,+ Western+ Cape,+ South+ Africa& ll=-33. 904153,18. 398189& spn=0. 003112,0. 004093& t=h& z=18) [7] Soekershof Soekershof.com (http:/ / www. soekershof. com) [8] Google.com.au (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?f=q& source=s_q& hl=en& geocode=& q=-33. 81109,+ 19. 98023& mrt=all& sll=-38. 412319,145. 038275& sspn=0. 002942,0. 004093& ie=UTF8& ll=-33. 810969,19. 980161& spn=0. 00624,0. 008186& t=h& z=17) [9] Ameinfo.com (http:/ / www. ameinfo. com/ 45024. html) [10] Iwami.or.jp (http:/ / www. iwami. or. jp/ hish/ kankou/ meiro/ maze. htm) [11] Kisomura.com (http:/ / kankou. kisomura. com/ kodama/ g. html) [12] Kinugawa.ne.jp (http:/ / www. kinugawa. ne. jp/ facilities/ palladium/ palladium. html) [13] Hi-land.co.jp (http:/ / www. hi-land. co. jp/ ) [14] Royalpines.co.jp (http:/ / www. royalpines. co. jp/ shirahama/ ) [15] http:/ / www. themaze. com. au/ [16] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-31. 653852,115. 958204& spn=0. 003306,0. 002419) [17] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-38. 41237,145. 037438) [18] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-33. 921497,138. 724869) [19] Amazenthings.com.au (http:/ / www. amazenthings. com. au/ ) [20] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-38. 487728,145. 262271) [21] Puzzlingworld.co.nz (http:/ / www. puzzlingworld. co. nz/ ) [22] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=48. 182484,16. 309236) [23] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 537715,13. 574654) [24] Hortus-vitalis.de (http:/ / www. hortus-vitalis. de) [25] Toscanaunderground.it (http:/ / www. toscanaunderground. it/ eng/ labirintoporsenna. htm) [26] CM-porto.pt (http:/ / www. cm-porto. pt/ gen. pl?p=stories& op=view& fokey=cmp. stories/ 2383) [27] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=41. 158021,-8. 587639) [28] Pontedelima.com (http:/ / www. pontedelima. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=168:jardins-no-parque-do-arnado& catid=76:parques-e-jardins& Itemid=170) [29] Azores.gov.pt (http:/ / www. azores. gov. pt/ Portal/ pt/ entidades/ sraf-drrf/ textoImagem/ Pinhal+ da+ Paz. htm) [30] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=56. 106007,9. 576414)
Maze
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[31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52]
Samsolabyrinten.com (http:/ / www. samsolabyrinten. com/ ) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=55. 971925,10. 551124) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=41. 440237,2. 145832) http:/ / www. orbigo. org Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 45409,-2. 741877) Greatmaze.info (http:/ / www. greatmaze. info/ maze. html) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 881823,0. 474719) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 837448,-1. 349832) Google Maps (hard to see) (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 04659,-1. 309712) Guinessworldrecords.com (http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ content_pages/ record. asp?recordid=47417) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=54. 258284,-5. 953174) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=53. 223938,-1. 60881) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 422888,-0. 068434) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 545231,-0. 954609) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 406033,-0. 337712) ME.uk (http:/ / www. wuff. me. uk/ hoo hill maze/ noj. html) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 029145,-0. 321728) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 245228,0. 632325) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=56. 421373,-3. 43348) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 217336,0. 799014) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=50. 947917,-1. 554914) Farmmaze.co.uk (http:/ / www. farmmaze. co. uk/ )
[53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81]
Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 027056,0. 237628) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 853717,-2. 648365) Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=53. 682094,-2. 702959) Amazingchicago.com (http:/ / www. amazingchicago. com/ ) Severscornmaze.com (http:/ / www. severscornmaze. com/ ) Davisfarmland.com (http:/ / www. davisfarmland. com/ megamaze/ index. htm) Dole-plantation.com (http:/ / www. dole-plantation. com/ Maze/ maze. aspx) Labyrintheduhangar16.com (http:/ / www. labyrintheduhangar16. com/ en/ index. html) Mazefunpark.com (http:/ / www. MazeFunPark. com) http:/ / www. mazemaniasc. com McMaze.ca (http:/ / www. mcmaze. ca/ ) Trailofterrorfest.com (http:/ / www. trailofterrorfest. com/ home. htm) Sacred-texts.com (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ index. htm) http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ ml27. htm http:/ / www. wikipediamaze. com http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ europe/ 09/ 29/ shortcuts. maze/ index. html http:/ / www. cornmazedir. com http:/ / teamofmonkeys. com/ html/ jan07. html http:/ / www. labyrinthsociety. org/ http:/ / www. labyrinthos. net/ turflabuk. html http:/ / www. amazeingart. com/ maze-faqs/ draw-mazes. html http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ http:/ / www. astrolog. org/ labyrnth/ algrithm. htm http:/ / www. jointoplay. com/ maz. html http:/ / www. urticator. net/ maze/ index. html http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ travel/ holiday_type/ family/ article2378169. ece http:/ / inkblotmazes. com/ http:/ / www. labyrinthmazegame. com http:/ / www. quoridor. net
Cardinal directions
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Cardinal directions The four cardinal directions or cardinal points are the directions of north, south, east, and west, commonly denoted by their initials: N, S, E, W. East and west are at right angles to north and south, with east being in the direction of rotation and west being directly opposite. Intermediate points between the four cardinal directions form the points of the compass. The intermediate (intercardinal, or ordinal) directions are north-east (NE), north-west (NW), south-west (SW), and south-east (SE). On Earth, upright observers facing north will have south behind them, east on their right, and west on their left. Most devices and methods for orientation therefore operate by finding north first, although any other direction is equally valid, if it can be reliably located. Several of these devices and methods are described below.
A compass rose showing the four cardinal directions, the four ordinal directions, plus eight further divisions.
Locating the directions The Sun The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known. In the morning, the Sun rises roughly in the east (due east only on the equinoxes) and tracks upwards. In the evening it sets in the west, again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes. In the middle of the day it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This method does not work so well closer to the equator (ie between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) since, in the northern hemisphere, the sun may be directly overhead or even to the north in summer. Conversely, at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun may be to the south of the observer in summer. (See seasons and solstice for more on this). In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday. Therefore, a more accurate fix can be made if the time of year and approximate latitude are factored in. It should also be noted that, due to the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what your location, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east. These days are the equinoxes. On all other days, depending on the time of year, the sun rises either north or south of true east (and sets north or south of true west). For all locations the sun is seen to rise north of east (and set north of west) from the March equinox to the September equinox, and rise south of east (and set south of west) from the September equinox to the March equinox.
Cardinal directions
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It should also be noted that the amount that the sun appears to be either north or south depends on both the time of year and latitude of the observer. Knowing these will enable the observer to be more precise when determining the cardinal directions from the sun's position, particularly in the early morning or late afternoon.
Watch face An analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24 hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12.
Specialized 24-hour watch with compass card dial
There are relatively minor inaccuracies due to the difference between local time and zone time, and due to the equation of time. The method functions less well as one gets closer to the equator. The photograph shows a specialized 24-hour watch designed for finding directions using the Sun in the northern hemisphere. With the watch set to indicate local time, the hour hand is pointed directly at the Sun. North is then indicated by the local midnight position.
Nighttime stars Astronomy provides a more reliable method for finding direction at night. The Earth's axis is currently (but not permanently) pointed, to within a fraction of 1 degree, toward the bright star Polaris. The exact direction of the axis changes over thousands of years due to the precession of the equinoxes. We call the end of the Earth's axis that points to Polaris the North Pole. The opposite end of the axis is named the South Pole. Polaris is also known as the North Star, and is generically called a pole star or lodestar. Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere. Picking out a specific single star may leave one uncertain they've found the right one. As an aid to identifying Polaris, the asterism "Big Dipper" may be employed. The 2 corner stars of the "pan" (those opposite from the handle) point above the top of the "pan" to Polaris. This is illustrated at this example [1], the beginning of a tutorial that teaches how to find Polaris. To see the rest of the tutorial click the link at the bottom of the illustration. From the Southern Hemisphere, nightly observations of the sky directly above the vicinity of the true pole will reveal that the visible stars appear to be moving in a circular path. (It is actually the observer that is moving in the circular path.) This becomes completely obvious when a special case of long exposure photography is employed to record the observations, by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night. The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived. The common center is exactly aligned with the true (as opposed to the magnetic) pole. (This also is true of the northern hemisphere, and can be used to verify one has correctly identified Polaris, which will not appear to move.) A published photograph [2] exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect.
Cardinal directions
Inertial navigation At the very end of the 19th century, to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one's alignment with true north, the gyrocompass was developed for ship use in scenarios where the magnetic compass simply wasn't good enough. It has the further advantages of immunity to interference by stray magnetic fields, and not depending on Earth's magnetic field at all. Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation. It also requires a continuous power supply for its motors, and that it be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time while it properly aligns itself.
Satellite navigation Near the end of the 20th century the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR functionality is becoming more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones. Handheld GPSRs have modest power requirements, can be shut down as needed, and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver must be moving, typically at more than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.
Additional points The directional names are also routinely and very conveniently associated with the degrees of rotation in the unit circle, a necessary step for navigational calculations (derived from trigonometry) and/or for use with Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Receivers. The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass: • • • •
North (N): 0° = 360° East (E): 90° South (S): 180° West (W): 270°
An ordinal, or intercardinal, or intermediate, direction is one of the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between the cardinal directions. • • • •
Northeast (NE), 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest. Southeast (SE), 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest. Southwest (SW), 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast. Northwest (NW), 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast.
These 8 words have been further compounded, resulting in a total of 16 named (and numbered) points evenly spaced around the compass. Some languages do not use compound words to name the points, instead assigning unique words, colors, and/or associations with phenomena of the natural world.
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Cardinal directions
Usefulness of cardinal points With the cardinal points thus accurately defined, by convention cartographers draw standard maps with north (N) at the top, and east (E) at the right. In turn, maps provide a systematic means to record where places are, and cardinal directions are the foundation of a structure for telling someone how to find those places. North does not have to be at the top. Portable GPS-based navigation computers can be set to display maps either conventionally (N always up, E always right) or with the current instantaneous direction of travel, called the heading, always up (and whatever direction is +90° from that to the right). The direction of travel required to reach the intended destination is called the bearing. Since the real world presents numerous obstacles, a person must adjust their heading accordingly. Upon moving forward, the bearing will change so that it always points at the destination, thereby giving clues as to which way to turn. When travelling, it is often easier to work out where the next turn is, and whether to turn left or right, when the direction of travel is always up.
Beyond geography Children are sometimes taught the order of these directions (clockwise, from North) by using a mnemonic, such as "Never Eat Shredded Wheat". In mathematics, cardinal directions or cardinal points are the six principal directions or points along the x-, y- and z-axis of three-dimensional space. In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are north, south, east, west, up and down. In this context, up and down relate to elevation, altitude, or possibly depth (if water is involved). The topographic map is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map, typically via contour lines. In astronomy, cardinal points of the disk of an astronomical body may be four points defined by the direction in which the celestial poles are located, as seen from the center of the disk.[3] [4] A line (here it is a great circle on the celestial sphere) drawn from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the body's limb at the North point. Similarly, a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.
Germanic origin of names During the Migration Period, the Germanic languages' names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages, where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis) with north, australis (or meridionalis) with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used the Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions.[5] • • • •
north (Proto-Germanic *norþ-) from a root *ner- "left, below", i.e. "to the left of the rising Sun". east (*aus-to-) from the word for dawn, see Ēostre. south (*sunþ-) is root-cognate to Sun itself, thus "the region of the Sun" west (*wes-t-) from a word for "evening", root-cognate to Latin vesper.
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Cardinal directions in world cultures Many cultures not descended from European traditions use cardinal directions, but have a number other than four. Typically, a “center” direction is added, for a total of five. Rather than the Western use of direction letters, properties such as colors are often associated with the various cardinal directions—these are typically the natural colors of human perception rather than optical primary colors. Some examples are shown here; In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and ordinal directions. The classical Greeks personified these winds as Anemoi. The article on boxing the compass contains a more recent list of directional winds from the Mediterranean Sea.
Far East Asia
N E S W
C
Source
China
[6] [7]
Ainu
[8] [9]
Turkic
[8]
Kalmyks
Tibet
— [10]
[8]
Dynastic Chinese culture and some other Central Asian cultures view the center as a fifth principal direction hence the English translated term "Five Cardinal Points". Where it is different than the west, is that the term is used as a foundation for I Ching, the Wu Xing and the five Naked-eye planets. In traditional Chinese astronomy, the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the four cardinal directions. Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a mythological creature of that color. Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction.[6] [7] These traditions were also carried west by the westward migration of the Turkic peoples. East: Green (青 "qīng" corresponds to green); Spring; Wood Qingdao (Tsingtao) "Green Island": a city on the east coast of China South: Red; Summer; Fire Red River (Asia): south of China Red Sea: south of Turkey West: White; Autumn; Metal White Sheep Turkmen Ak Deniz "White Sea" in Turkish indicates the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, or the Mediterranean Sea Belarus (literally "White Russia"), according to one of the theories is the name given to the Western Rus by the Mongols North: Black; Winter; Water Heilongjiang "Black Dragon River" province in Northeast China, also the Amur River Black Sea: north of Turkey Kara-Khitan Khanate Center: Yellow; Earth
Cardinal directions
50
Mount Huang "Yellow Mountain" in central China Golden Horde: "Central Army" of the Mongols
Americas America N E S W
C
Source
Apache
— [11]
Aztec
— [12] [13]
Cherokee
[8] [14]
Lakota
[8]
Mayan
[8] [12]
Navajo
— [8] [11]
Pueblo
— [8] [14]
Sioux
— [8]
In Mesoamerica and North America, many traditional indigenous beliefs include four cardinal directions and a center. Each direction was associated with a color, which varied between groups but which generally corresponded to the hues of corn (green, black, red, white, and yellow). There seems to be no “preferred” way of assigning these colors; as shown in the table, great variety in color symbolism occurs even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically.
Unique (non-compound) names of ordinal directions In some languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Breton, the ordinal directions have names that are not compounds of the names of the cardinal directions (as, for instance, northeast is compounded from north and east). In Finnish those are koillinen (northeast), kaakko (southeast), lounas (southwest), and luode (northwest).
Non-compass directional systems Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in European culture, and also in Chinese culture (see South Pointing Chariot). Some other cultures make greater use of other referents, such as towards the sea or towards the mountains (Hawaii, Bali), or upstream and downstream (most notably in ancient Egypt, also in the Yurok and Karuk languages). Lengo (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands) has four non-compass directions: landward, seaward, upcoast, and downcoast.
Cardinal directions
See also • • • • • • • • •
Azimuth Boxing the compass for all thirty-two English-named internationally-used principal points of the compass. Elevation – the mapping information ignored by the cardinal point system Geocaching – a international hobby Geographic Information System (GIS) Latitude and Longitude List of cartographers – about famous cartographers through history List of international common standards Magnetic deviation – to understand why a compass does not align perfectly with the Earth's north and south poles. • Orienteering – to learn about an internationally popular hobby and sport that depends on the above knowledge for success. • Uses of trigonometry
References Notes [1] http:/ / www. quietbay. net/ Science/ astronomy/ nightsky/ 034. html [2] http:/ / astro. wsu. edu/ worthey/ astro/ html/ im-sky/ south-pole-star-trails. jpg [3] Rigge, W. F. "Partial eclipse of the moon, 1918, June 24" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1918PA. . . . . 26. . 373R). Popular Astronomy Vol. 26: 373. . Retrieved 2009-12-15. [4] Meadows, Peter. "Solar Observing: Parallactic Angle" (http:/ / www. petermeadows. com/ html/ parallactic. html). . Retrieved 15 December 2009. [5] See e.g. Weibull, Lauritz. De gamle nordbornas väderstrecksbegrepp. Scandia 1/1928; Ekblom, R. Alfred the Great as Geographer. Studia Neophilologica 14/1941-2; Ekblom, R. Den forntida nordiska orientering och Wulfstans resa till Truso. Förnvännen. 33/1938; Sköld, Tryggve. Isländska väderstreck. Scripta Islandica. Isländska skällskapet årsbok 16/1965. [6] "Cardinal colors in Chinese tradition" (http:/ / www. colorsystem. com/ projekte/ engl/ 63chie. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17. [7] "Chinese Cosmogony" (http:/ / ignca. nic. in/ ps_01005. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17. [8] "Colors of the Four Directions" (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ colorsofthefourdirections/ ). . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [9] "Two Studies of Color" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0020-7071(198207)48:3<339:"SOCIF>2. 0. CO;2-4). . Retrieved 2008-03-14. "In Ainu... siwnin means both 'yellow' and 'blue' and hu means 'green' and 'red'" [10] Krupp, E. C.: "Beyond the Blue Horizon: Myths and Legends of the Sun, Moon, Stars, and Planets", page 371. Oxford University Press, 1992 [11] "Symbolism of Color" (http:/ / www. princetonol. com/ groups/ iad/ lessons/ middle/ color2. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17. [12] "Aztec Calendar and Colors" (http:/ / www. carnaval. com/ dead/ threedaydead. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17. [13] "The Aztec Gateway" (http:/ / www. amoxtli. org/ cuezali/ deities. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-17. [14] "Native American Quotes & Proverbs" (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ok/ nightowlsgazebo/ page8. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
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Tattoo
52
Tattoo A tattoo is a marking made by inserting indelible ink into the dermis layer of the skin to change the pigment for decorative or other reasons. Tattoos on humans are a type of decorative body modification, while tattoos on animals are most commonly used for identification or branding. The term "tattoo" or from Samoa, "Tatau" is first referred to by Joseph Banks, the naturalist aboard Cook's ship the "Endeavour" in 1769 where he mentions it in his journal. To paraphrase. he states, "I shall now mention the way they mark themselves indelibly, each of them is so marked by their humor or disposition". Tattooing has been practiced for centuries worldwide. The Ainu, the indigenous people of Japan, traditionally wore facial tattoos. Today one can find Berbers of Tamazgha (North Africa), Māori of New Zealand, Arabic people in East-Turkey and Atayal of Taiwan with facial tattoos. Tattooing was widespread among Polynesian peoples and among certain tribal groups in the Taiwan, Philippines, Borneo, Mentawai Islands, Africa, North America, South America, Mesoamerica, Europe, Japan, Cambodia, New Zealand and Micronesia. Despite some taboos surrounding tattooing, the art continues to be popular in many parts of the world.
A Māori Chief with tattoos (moko) seen by Cook and his crew
Etymology The OED gives the etymology of tattoo as "In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. From Polynesian tatau. In Tahitian, tatu." The word tatau was introduced as a loan word into English, the pronunciation being changed to conform to English phonology as "tattoo".[1] Sailors on later voyages introduced both the word and reintroduced the concept of tattooing to Europe.[2] Tattoo enthusiasts may refer to tattoos as "Ink", "Tats", "Art", "Pieces", or "Work"; and to the tattooists as "Artists". The latter usage is gaining greater support, with mainstream art galleries holding exhibitions of both conventional and custom tattoo designs. Copyrighted tattoo designs that are mass-produced and sent to tattoo artists are known as flash, a notable instance of industrial design. Flash sheets are prominently displayed in many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and ready-made tattoo images to customers.
Japanese painting of Yan Qing, who is famous for his tattoo in Chinese Classical Masterpiece "The Outlaws of the Marsh". (c.1800s)
The Japanese word irezumi means "insertion of ink" and can mean tattoos using tebori, the traditional Japanese hand method, a Western-style machine, or for that matter, any method of tattooing using insertion of ink. The most common word used for traditional Japanese tattoo designs is Horimono. Japanese may use the word "tattoo" to mean non-Japanese styles of tattooing. In Taiwan, facial tattoos of the Atayal tribe are named "Badasun"; they are used to demonstrate that an adult man can protect his homeland, and that an adult woman is qualified to weave cloth and perform housekeeping. The anthropologist Ling Roth in 1900 described four methods of skin marking and suggested they be differentiated under the names of tatu, moko, cicatrix, and keloid.[3]
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53
History Tattooing has been a Eurasian practice at least since around Neolithic times. Ötzi the Iceman, dating from the fourth to fifth millennium BC, was found in the Ötz valley in the Alps and had approximately 57 carbon tattoos consisting of simple dots and lines on his lower spine, behind his left knee, and on his right ankle. These tattoos were thought to be a form of healing because of their placement which resembles acupuncture. [19] Other mummies bearing tattoos and dating from the end of the second millennium BC have been discovered, such as the Mummy of Amunet from Ancient Egypt and the mummies at Pazyryk on the Ukok Plateau.[4] Pre-Christian Germanic, Celtic and other central and northern European tribes were often heavily tattooed, according to surviving accounts. The Picts were famously tattooed (or scarified) with elaborate dark blue woad (or possibly copper for the blue tone) designs. Julius Caesar described these tattoos in Book V of his Gallic Wars (54 BC). Tattooing in Japan is thought to go back to the Paleolithic era, some ten thousand years ago. Various other cultures have had their own tattoo traditions, ranging from rubbing cuts and other wounds with ashes, to hand-pricking the skin to insert dyes.
A tattoo on the right arm of a Scythian chieftain, whose mummy was discovered at Pazyryk, Russia
Tattooing in the Western world today has its origins in Polynesia, and in the discovery of tatau by eighteenth century explorers. The Polynesian practice became popular among European sailors, before spreading to Western societies generally.[5]
Purposes Decorative and spiritual uses Tattoos have served as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts. The symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a relative (commonly mother/father or daughter/son) or about an unrelated person. Tattooing is a tradition among many of the indigenous peoples around the world.
Tattoo
54
Today, people choose to be tattooed for cosmetic, sentimental/memorial, religious, and magical reasons, and to symbolize their belonging to or identification with particular groups, including criminal gangs (see criminal tattoos) but also a particular ethnic group or law-abiding subculture. Some Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, the yantra tattoo is used for protection against evil and to increase luck. A memorial tattoo of a deceased loved one's In the Philippines certain tribal groups believe that tattoos have initials magical qualities, and help to protect their bearers. Most traditional tattooing in the Philippines is related to the bearer's accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe. Among Catholic Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, tattoos with Christian symbols would be inked on to protect themselves from the Muslim Turks. Extensive decorative tattooing is common among members of traditional freak shows and by performance artists who follow in their tradition.
Identification People have also been forcibly tattooed. A well known example is the identification system for inmates in Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust. Tattoos have also been used for identification in other ways. For example, in the period of early contact between the Māori and Europeans, Māori chiefs sometimes drew their moko (facial tattoo) on documents in place of a signature. Tattoos are sometimes used by forensic pathologists to help them A Nazi concentration camp identification tattoo identify burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. Tattoo pigment is buried deep enough in the skin that even severe burns are not likely to destroy a tattoo. For many centuries seafarers have undergone tattooing for the purpose of enabling identification after drowning. In this way recovered bodies of such drowned persons could be connected with their family members or friends before burial. Therefore tattooists often worked in ports where potential customers were numerous. The traditional custom continues today in the Royal Navy (Great Britain) and in many others. Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for decorative reasons. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification and other marks. Pet dogs and cats are often tattooed with a serial number (usually in the ear, or on the inner thigh) via which their owners can be identified. Also, animals are occasionally tattooed to prevent sunburn (on the nose, for example). Such tattoos are often performed by a veterinarian and in most cases the animals are anesthetized during the process. Branding is used for similar reasons and is often performed without anesthesia, but is different from tattooing as no ink or dye is inserted during the process.
Cosmetic
Mark of a deserter from the British Army. Tattoo on skin and equipment. Displayed at Army Medical Services Museum.
Tattoo
55
When used as a form of cosmetics, tattooing includes permanent makeup and hiding or neutralizing skin discolorations. Permanent makeup is the use of tattoos to enhance eyebrows, lips (liner and/or lipstick), eyes (liner), and even moles, usually with natural colors as the designs are intended to resemble makeup.
Medical Medical tattoos are used to ensure instruments are properly located for repeated application of radiotherapy and for the areola in some forms of breast reconstruction. Tattooing has also been used to convey medical information about the wearer (e.g. blood group).
Prevalence Tattoos have experienced a resurgence in popularity in many parts of the world, particularly in North and South America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine arts training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced.[6] During the first decade of the 21st century, the presence of tattoos became evident within pop culture, inspiring television shows such as A&E's Inked and TLC's Miami Ink and LA Ink. The decoration of blues singer Janis Joplin with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, has been called a seminal moment in the popular acceptance of tattoos as art.[7] Formal interest in the art of the tattoo has become prominent in the 1990s through the beginning of the 21st century. Contemporary art exhibitions and visual art institutions have featured tattoos as art through such means as displaying tattoo flash, examining the works of tattoo artists, or otherwise incorporating examples of body art into mainstream exhibits. One such 2009 Chicago exhibition Freaks & Flash featured both examples of historic body art as well as the tattoo artists which produced it.[8]
Woman with a lower back tattoo
Tattoo
56
In many traditional cultures tattooing has also enjoyed a resurgence, partially in deference to cultural heritage. Historically, a decline in traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred with the spread of Christianity. However, some Christian groups, such as the Knights of St. John of Malta, sported tattoos to show their allegiance. A decline often occurred in other cultures following European efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to Western religious and cultural practices that held tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity. Within some traditional indigenous cultures, tattooing takes place within the context of a rite of passage between adolescence and adulthood. Many studies have been done of the tattooed population and society's view of tattoos. In June 2006 the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology published the results of a telephone survey which took place in 2004. It found that 36% of Americans ages 18–29, 24% of those 30-40 and 15% of those 41-51 had a tattoo.[9] In September 2006, the Pew Research Center conducted a telephone survey which found that 36% of Americans ages Woman with Tattoo 18–25, 40% of those 26-40 and 10% of those 41-64 had a [10] tattoo. In January 2008, a survey conducted online by Harris Interactive estimated that 14% of all adults in the United States have a tattoo, just slightly down from 2003, when 16% had a tattoo. The highest incidence of tattoos was found among the gay, lesbian and bisexual population (25%) and people living in the West (20%). Among age groups, 9% of those ages 18–24, 32% of those 25-29, 25% of those 30-39 and 12% of those 40-49 have tattoos, as do 8% of those 50-64. Men are just slightly more likely to have a tattoo than women (15% versus 13%)[11]
Negative associations In Japan, tattoos are strongly associated with a particular organized crime organization known as the yakuza, particularly full body tattoos done the traditional Japanese way (Tebori). Many public Japanese bathhouses (sentō) and gymnasiums often openly ban those bearing large or graphic tattoos in an attempt to prevent Yakuza from entering.[12] The Government of Meiji Japan had outlawed tattoos in the 19th century, a prohibition that stood for 70 years before being repealed in 1948.[13]
Conspicuous tattoos and other body modification can make gainful employment difficult in many fields.
In the United States many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to indicate facts about their criminal behavior, prison sentences, and organizational affiliation.[14] A tear tattoo, for example, can be symbolic of murder, with each tear representing the death of a friend. At the same time, members of the U.S. military have an equally well established and longstanding history of tattooing to indicate military units, battles, kills, etc., an association which remains widespread among older Americans. Tattooing is also common in the British Armed Forces.
Tattooing was also used by the Nazi regime in Nazi concentration camps to tag prisoners. Insofar as this cultural or subcultural use of tattoos predates the widespread popularity of tattoos in the general population, tattoos are still associated with criminality. Although the general acceptance of tattoos is on the rise in
Tattoo Western society, they still carry a heavy stigma among certain social groups. Tattoos are generally considered an important part of the culture of the Russian mafia. The prevalence of women in the tattoo industry, along with larger numbers of women bearing tattoos, appears to be changing negative perceptions with the exception of so called "tramp-stamp",a lower back tattoo. A study of "at-risk" (as defined by school absenteeism and truancy) adolescent girls showed a positive correlation between body-modification and negative feelings towards the body and self-esteem; however, also illustrating a strong motive for body-modification as the search for "self and attempts to attain mastery and control over the body in an age of increasing alienation."[15]
Religious perspectives Christianity There is no consistent Christian position on tattooing. The majority of Christians do not take issue with the practice, while a minority uphold the Hebrew view against tattoos (see below) based on Leviticus 19:28. Tattoos of Christian symbols are common. When on pilgramage, some Christians get a small tatoo dating the year and a small cross. This is usually done on the forearm. Catholic Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina used tattooing, especially of children, for perceived protection against forced conversion to Islam during Turkish occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463-1878). This form of tattooing continued long past its original motivation, though it was forbidden during Yugoslavian communism. Tattooing was performed during spring time or during special religious celebrations such as the Feast of St. Joseph, and consisted mostly of Christian crosses on hands, fingers, forearms, and below the neck and on the chest.[16] [17] [18]
Coptic Christians who live in Egypt tattoo themselves with the symbols of Coptic crosses on their right wrists.
Mormonism Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (often referred to as "Latter-day Saints" or "Mormons") have been advised by their church leaders to not tattoo their bodies.[19] In the Articles of Faith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints it states that the Latter-day Saints accept the Bible to be the word of God[20] Therefore, the church believes that the body is a sacred temple as preached in the New Testament,[21] and that they should keep it clean, inside and out, which the church interprets as forbidding tattoos.
Islam Tattoos are usually considered forbidden in Sunni Islam. According to the book of Sunni traditions, Sahih Bukhari, "The Prophet forbade [...] mutilation (or maiming) of bodies."[22] Sunni Muslims believe tattooing is haraam (i.e. forbidden) because it involves changing the creation of Allah, and because the Prophet cursed the one who does tattoos and the one for whom that is done.[23] There is, however, difference of scholarly Sunni Muslim opinion as to the reason why tattoos are forbidden.[24] The use of temporary tattoo made with Henna is very common in Muslim North-Africa. The permissibility of tattoos is debated in Shi'a Islam, with some Shi'a pointing to a fatwa by Ayatollah Sistani stating they are halal (permitted).[25]
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58
Judaism Tattoos are forbidden in Judaism[26] based on the Torah (Leviticus 19:28): "You shall not make gashes in your flesh for the dead, or incise any marks on yourselves: I am the Lord." The prohibition is explained by contemporary rabbis as part of a general prohibition on body modification that does not serve a medical purpose (such as to correct a deformity). Maimonides, a leading 12th century scholar of Jewish law and thought, explains the prohibition against tattoos as a Jewish response to paganism. Since it was common practice for ancient pagan worshipers to tattoo themselves with religious iconography and names of gods, Judaism prohibited tattoos entirely in order to disassociate from other religions. In modern times, the association of tattoos with Nazi concentration camps and the Holocaust has given an additional level for revulsion to the practice of tattooing, even among many otherwise fairly secular Jews.
Procedure Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the layer of dermal tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment remains trapped within fibroblasts, ultimately concentrating in a layer just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is stable, but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.[27]
Modern tattoo machine in use: here outfitted with a 5-needle setup, but number of needles depends on size and shading desired.
Some tribal cultures traditionally created tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents; some cultures continue this practice, which may be an adjunct to scarification. Some cultures create tattooed marks by hand-tapping the ink into the skin using sharpened sticks or animal bones (made like needles) with clay formed disks or, in modern times, needles. Traditional Japanese tattoos (Horimono) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel. This method is known as tebori.
Tattoo
59 The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine, which inserts ink into the skin via a group of needles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the skin, usually 80 to 150 times a second. This modern procedure is ordinarily sanitary. The needles are single-use needles that come packaged individually. The tattoo artist must wash not only his or her hands, but they must also wash the area that will be tattooed. Gloves must be worn at all times and the wound must be wiped frequently with a wet disposable towel of some kind.
Prices for this service vary widely globally and locally, depending on the complexity of the tattoo, the skill and expertise of the artist, the Traditional two coil tattoo machine attitude of the customer, the costs of running a business, the economics of supply and demand, etc. The time it takes to get a tattoo is in proportion with its size and complexity. A small one of simple design might take fifteen minutes, whereas an elaborate sleeve tattoo or back piece requires multiple sessions of several hours each. The modern electric tattoo machine is far removed from the machine invented by Samuel O'Reilly in 1891. O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of the electric engraving device invented by Thomas Edison. Modern tattoo machines use electromagnetic coils. The first coil machine was patented by Thomas Riley in London, 1891 using a single coil. The first twin coil machine, the predecessor of the modern configuration, was invented by another Englishman, Alfred Charles South of London, in 1899.
Dyes and pigments Early tattoo inks were obtained directly from nature and were extremely limited in pigment variety. Today, an almost unlimited number of colors and shades of tattoo ink are mass-produced and sold to parlors worldwide. Tattoo artists commonly mix these inks to create their own unique pigments. A wide range of dyes and pigments can be used in tattoos, from inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and iron oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol derivates, dyes made from ash, and other mixtures. Iron oxide pigments are used in greater extent in cosmetic tattooing. Modern tattooing inks are carbon based pigments that have uses outside of commercial tattoo applications. In 2005 at Northern Arizona University a study characterized the makeup of tattoo inks (Finley-Jones and Wagner). The FDA expects local authorities to legislate and test tattoo pigments and inks made for the use of permanent cosmetics. In California, the state prohibits certain ingredients and pursues companies who fail to notify the consumer of the contents of tattoo pigments. There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo pigments, some of which contain trace metals. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. The television show MythBusters tested the hypothesis, and found a slight interaction between commonly used tattoo inks and MRI. The interaction was stronger with inks containing high levels of iron oxide.[28] [29] Professional tattooists rely primarily on the same pigment base found in cosmetics. Amateurs will often use drawing inks such as low grade India ink, but these inks often contain impurities and toxins which can lead to illness or infection.
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Studio hygiene The properly equipped tattoo studio will use biohazard containers for objects that have come into contact with blood or bodily fluids, sharps containers for old needles, and an autoclave for sterilizing tools.[30] Certain jurisdictions also require studios by law to have a sink in the work area supplied with both hot and cold water. Proper hygiene requires a body modification artist to wash his or her hands before starting to prepare a client for the stencil, between clients, and at any other time where cross contamination can occur. The use of single use disposable gloves is also mandatory. In some states and countries it is illegal to tattoo a minor even with parental consent, and (except in the case of medical tattoos) it is usually not allowed to tattoo impaired persons, people with contraindicated skin conditions, those who are pregnant or nursing, those incapable of consent due to mental incapacity or those under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Before the tattooing begins the client is asked to approve the final position of the applied stencil. After approval is given the artist will open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile disposable instruments and supplies, and fresh ink for each session (loaded into disposable ink caps which are discarded after each client). Also, all areas which may be touched with contaminated gloves will be wrapped in clear plastic to prevent cross-contamination. Equipment that cannot be autoclaved (such as counter tops, machines, and furniture) will be wiped with an approved disinfectant.[31] Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, generally helps artists to be aware of the latest trends. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While specific requirements to become a tattooist vary between jurisdictions, many mandate only formal training in bloodborne pathogens, and cross contamination. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions. For example, according to the health departments in Oregon and Hawaii, tattoo artists in these states are required to take and pass a test ascertaining their knowledge of health and safety precautions, as well as the current state regulations. Performing a tattoo in Oregon state without a proper and current license or in an unlicensed facility is a felony offense.[32] Tattooing was legalized in New York City in 1997,[33] and in Massachusetts and Oklahoma between 2002 and 2006.
Aftercare
Tattoo specific salves have become prevalent in recent years.
Tattoo artists, and people with tattoos, vary widely in their preferred methods of caring for new tattoos. Some artists recommend keeping a new tattoo wrapped for the first twenty-four hours, while others suggest removing temporary bandaging after two hours or less. Many tattooists advise against allowing too much contact with hot tub or pool water, or soaking in a tub for the first two weeks. This is to prevent the tattoo ink from washing out or fading due to over-hydration and to avoid infection from exposure to bacteria and chlorine. In contrast, other artists suggest that a new tattoo be bathed in very hot water early and often.
General consensus for care advises against removing the scab that forms on a new tattoo, and avoiding exposing one's tattoo to the sun for extended periods; both of these can contribute to fading of the image. Furthermore, it is agreed that a new tattoo needs to be kept clean. Various products may be recommended for application to the skin, ranging from those intended for the treatment of cuts, burns and scrapes, to cocoa butter, hemp, salves, lanolin, A&D or Aquaphor. Oil based ointments are almost always recommended to be used in very thin layers due to their inability to evaporate and therefore over-hydrate the already perforated skin. In recent years, specific commercial products have been
Tattoo developed for tattoo aftercare. Although opinions about these products vary, there is near total agreement that either alone or in addition to some other product, soap and warm water work well to keep a tattoo clean and free from infection.[34] Ultimately, the amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines, in large part, how robust the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected (uncommon but possible if one neglects to properly clean their tattoo) or if the scab falls off too soon (e.g., if it absorbs too much water and sloughs off early or is picked or scraped off), then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively affected.
Health risks Because it requires breaking the skin barrier, tattooing may carry health risks, including infection and allergic reactions. Modern tattooists reduce such risks by following universal precautions, working with single-use items, and sterilizing their equipment after each use. Many jurisdictions require that tattooists have bloodborne pathogen training, such as is provided through the Red Cross and OSHA. In amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated risk of infection. Infections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of unsterilized tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of the skin, herpes simplex virus, tetanus, staph, fungal infections, some forms of hepatitis, tuberculosis, and HIV.[35] In the United States there have been no reported cases of HIV contracted via commercially-applied tattooing process.[36] Modern tattoo artist's nitrile gloves Tattoos increase the risk of hepatitic disease, which will be exacerbated by the and sterilized equipment steatohepatitis that alcohol induces. Therefore it has been highly reccommended not to drink for at least 2 months after getting a tattoo, though the risk will still not have completely diminished. Hepatitic disease is a serious condition frequently involving jaundicing - to be exact, the yellowing appearance of the skin, furthermore, spontaneous bleeding primarily from the joints. Risk of infections is also increased, and coupled with hepatitic disease, can result in exsanguination.
Tattoo inks have been described as "remarkably nonreactive histologically".[27] However, cases of allergic reactions to tattoo inks, particularly certain colors, have been medically documented. Occasionally, when a blood vessel is punctured during the tattooing procedure a bruise/hematoma may appear.[37] [38]
Tattoo removal While tattoos are considered permanent, it is sometimes possible to remove them with laser treatments, fully or partially. Typically, black and darker colored inks can be removed more completely. An ink trademarked as InfinitInk is designed to be removed in a single laser treatment. The expense and pain of removing tattoos will typically be greater than the expense and pain of applying them. Some jurisdictions will pay for the voluntary removal of gang tattoos. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery, and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos.
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Temporary tattoos Temporary tattoos are popular with models and children as they involve no permanent alteration of the skin but produce a similar appearance that can last anywhere from a few days to several weeks. The most common style is a type of body sticker similar to a decal, which is typically transferred to the skin using water. Although the design is waterproof, it can be removed easily with oil-based creams. Originally inserted as a prize in bubble gum packages, they consisted of a poor quality ink transfer that would easily come off with water or rubbing. Today's vegetable dye temporaries can look extremely realistic and adhere up to 3 weeks due to a layer of glue similar to that found on an adhesive bandage. Henna tattoos (Mehndi) and silver nitrate stains that appear when exposed to ultraviolet light can take up to two weeks to fade from the skin. Temporary airbrush tattoos (TATs) are applied by covering the skin with a stencil and spraying the skin with ink. In the past, this form of tattoo only lasted about a week. With the newest inks, tattoos can reasonably last for up to two weeks.
Temporary tattoo being applied to a human ankle
Types of tattoos The American Academy of Dermatology distinguishes 5 types of tattoos:[39] Traumatic tattoos, also called "natural tattoos", that result from injuries, especially asphalt from road injuries or pencil lead; Amateur tattoos; Professional tattoos, both via traditional methods and modern tattoo machines; Medical tattoos; Cosmetic tattoos, also known as "permanent makeup".
Traumatic tattoos According to George Orwell, coal miners could develop characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds. This can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several different layers of skin, and scarring or permanent discoloration is almost unavoidable depending on the location. In addition, tattooing of the gingiva from implantation of amalgam particles during dental filling placement and removal is possible and not uncommon. A common example of such accidental tattoos is the result of a deliberate or accidental stabbing with a pencil or pen, leaving graphite or ink beneath the skin.
See also •
Chinese character tattoos
•
Marquesan tattoo
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Five Dots Tattoo
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SS blood group tattoo
•
Foreign body reaction
•
Tattoo convention
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Legal status of tattooing in the United States
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Tattooing of Minors Act 1969 (in the UK)
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List of tattoo artists
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Tear tattoo
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Lucky Diamond Rich, world's most tattooed person. • •
Three Dots Tattoo UV tattoo
Tattoo
References Bibliography Anthropological • Buckland, A. W. (1887) "On Tattooing," in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1887/12, p. 318-328 • Caplan, Jane (ed.) (2000): Written on the Body: the Tattoo in European and American History, Princeton U P • DeMello, Margo (2000) Bodies of Inscription: a Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community, California. Durham NC: Duke University Press • Fisher, Jill A. (2002). Tattooing the Body, Marking Culture. Body & Society 8 (4): pp. 91–107. • Gell, Alfred (1993) Wrapping in Images: Tattooing in Polynesia, Oxford: Clarendon Press • Gilbert, Stephen G. (2001) Tattoo History: a Source Book, New York: Juno Books • Gustafson, Mark (1997) "Inscripta in fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," in Classical Antiquity, April 1997, Vol. 16/No. 1, p. 79-105 • Hambly, Wilfrid Dyson (1925) The History of Tattooing and Its Significance: With Some Account of Other Forms of Corporal Marking, London: H. F.& G. Witherby (reissued: Detroit 1974) • Hesselt van Dinter, Maarten (2005) The World of Tattoo; An Illustrated History. Amsterdam, KIT Publishers • Jones, C. P. (1987) "Stigma: Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," in Journal of Roman Studies, 77/1987, pp. 139–155 • Juno, Andrea. Modern Primitives. Re/Search #12 (October 1989) ISBN 0965046931 • "Tattooing Among Japan's Ainu People" [40]. Lars Krutak. Retrieved 2009-08-24. • Lombroso, Cesare (1896) "The Savage Origin of Tattooing," in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. IV., 1896 • Raviv, Shaun (2006) Marked for Life: Jews and Tattoos (Moment Magazine; June 2006) • Comparative study about Ötzi's therapeutic tattoos (L. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract) [41] • Robley, Horatio (1896) Moko, or, Maori tattooing. London: Chapman and Hall • Roth, H. Ling (1901) Maori tatu and moko. In: Journal of the Anthropological Institute v. 31, January-June 1901 • Rubin, Arnold (ed.) (1988) Marks of Civilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body, Los Angeles: UCLA Museum of Cultural History • Sanders, Clinton R. (1989) Customizing the Body: the Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press • Sinclair, A. T. (1909) "Tattooing of the North American Indians," in American Anthropologist 1909/11, No. 3, p. 362-400 Popular and artistic • Green, Terisa. Ink: The Not-Just-Skin-Deep Guide to Getting a Tattoo ISBN 0-451-21514-1 • Green, Terisa. The Tattoo Encyclopedia: A Guide to Choosing Your Tattoo ISBN 0-7432-2329-2 • Krakow, Amy. Total Tattoo Book ISBN 0-446-67001-4 Medical • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC's Position on Tattooing and HCV Infection [42], retrieved June 12, 2006 • National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Body Art (workplace hazards) [43], retrieved September 15, 2008 • United States Food and Drug Administration, "Tattoos and Permanent Makeup" [44], CFSAN/Office of Cosmetics and Colors (2000; updated [2004, 2006]), retrieved June 12, 2006 • Haley R.W. and Fischer R.P., Commercial tattooing as a potential source of hepatitis C infection, Medicine, March 2000;80:134-151
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References [1] Samoa: Samoan Tattoos (http:/ / www. polynesia. com/ samoa/ samoan-tattoos. html), Polynesian Cultural Center, [2] Tattoo 2. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 89/ T0058900. html) [3] Roth, H. Ling (1900) On Permanent Artificial Skin Marks: a definition of terms. Anthropological Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bradford, September 11th 1900 [4] Tattoos: Egyptian Mummies from BMEzine.com Encyclopedia (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Egyptian_Mummies); Tattoos: Pazyryk Mummies from BMEzine.com Encyclopedia (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Pazyryk_Mummies) [5] "Tattoo" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 584263/ tattoo#tab=active~checked,items~checked& title=tattoo -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia), Encyclopaedia Britannica [6] Mifflin, Margot. Bodies of Subversion A secret History of Women and Tattoo. New York City: Juno Books, 1997. [7] Deb Acord "Who knew: Mommy has a tattoo", Maine Sunday Telegram November 19, 2006 [8] The Chicago art exhibition, Freaks & Flash (http:/ / www. art. org/ exhibitions/ archives/ 2009/ tattoo. htm), for example, juxtaposed circus sideshow banners depicting tattooed performers like "The Tattooed Lady" alongside art inspired by the tattoo Renaissance of the 1960s and 1970s. [9] Laumann AE, Derick AJ (September 2006), "Tattoos and body piercings in the United States: a national data set", Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 55 (3): 413–21, doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.03.026, PMID 16908345 [10] The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. A Portrait of "Generation Next" (http:/ / people-press. org/ report/ 300/ a-portrait-of-generation-next) [11] Harris Interactive. Three in ten Americans with a tattoo say having one makes them feel sexier or more artsy (http:/ / www. harrisinteractive. com/ harris_poll/ index. asp?PID=868) [12] NYtimes.com (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ frommers/ travel/ guides/ asia/ japan/ tokyo/ frm_tokyo_0085022417. html) [13] Ito, Masami, " Whether covered or brazen, tattoos make a statement (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20100608i1. html)", Japan Times, June 8, 2010, p. 3. [14] Andrew Lichtenstein, Texas Prison Tattoos (http:/ / www. foto8. com/ issue01/ dprisontattoos/ prisontattoos1. html), , retrieved 2007-12-08 [15] Carroll L, Anderson R (2002), "Body piercing, tattooing, self-esteem, and body investment in adolescent girls", Adolescence 37 (147): 627–37, PMID 12458698 [16] Darko Zubrinic (1995), Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina (http:/ / www. croatianhistory. net/ etf/ et02. html), [17] Croatianhistory.net (http:/ / www. croatianhistory. net/ etf/ et02. html#tattoo) [18] Customs and folkways of Jewish life, Theodor Herzl Gaster. [19] Latter-day Saints commanded to not be tattooed (http:/ / lds. org/ ldsorg/ v/ index. jsp?hideNav=1& locale=0& sourceId=c6f0b5658af22110VgnVCM100000176f620a____& vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD) [20] "We believe the Bible to be the word of God ..." LDS.org (http:/ / scriptures. lds. org/ en/ a_of_f/ 1/ 8#8) [21] 1 Cor 3:10-17 (http:/ / scriptures. lds. org/ en/ 1_cor/ 3/ 10-17#10); read all these verses to understand the full context [22] Sahih Bukhari, Oppressions, Volume 3, Book 43, Number 654 [23] ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Mas’ood wrote: “May or may not Allaah curse the women who do tattoos and those for whom tattoos are done, those who pluck their eyebrows and nose hairs, and those who file their teeth for the purpose of beautification and alter the creation of Allaah.” (al-Bukhaari, al-Libaas, 5587; Muslim, al-Libaas, 5538) [24] "Ruling of Tattoos in Islam". Retrieved 2009-03-25 (http:/ / www. muslimconverts. com/ cosmetics/ tattoos. htm/ ) [25] Rulings of Grand Ayatullah Sistani - Youth's Issues Posted 18 October 2006 (http:/ / www. alulbayt. com/ rulings/ 15. htm) [26] "Tattooing in Jewish Law". Retrieved 2009-06-25 (http:/ / www. myjewishlearning. com/ practices/ Ethics/ Our_Bodies/ Adorning_the_Body/ Tattoos. shtml) [27] Tattoo lasers / Histology (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ derm/ topic563. htm#section~histology), Suzanne Kilmer, eMedicine [28] "Mythbusters: Can a tattoo explode in an MRI machine?" (http:/ / youtube. com/ watch?v=PAnz95zzEzk). . [29] Karen L. Hudson. "Tattoos and MRI Scans" (http:/ / tattoo. about. com/ cs/ tatfaq/ a/ mri_scan. htm). about.com. . [30] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Body Art: Preventing Needlestick Injuries (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ bbp/ bodyart/ needlestick. html). Retrieved September 15, 2008. [31] Tattoos (http:/ / www. kidshealth. org/ teen/ your_body/ skin_stuff/ safe_tattooing. html), Renee Kottenhahn, TeensHealth [32] Oregon State Health Department (http:/ / www. oregon. gov/ OHLA/ links. shtml) [33] NYC24.org (http:/ / www. nyc24. org/ 2003/ issue4/ story4/ page2. html) [34] Tattoo Post Operative Care (http:/ / www. thetattoocollection. com/ tattoo_post_operative_care. htm) [35] Tattoos: Risks and precautions to know first - MayoClinic.com (http:/ / www. mayoclinic. com/ health/ tattoos-and-piercings/ MC00020) [36] HIV and Its Transmission (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ hiv/ resources/ factsheets/ transmission. htm) July 1999, CDC [37] Bruising (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Bruising#Bruising_around_fresh_tattoos), , retrieved 2009-10-08 [38] All Experts, New Tattoo - Bruising or Leaking (http:/ / en. allexperts. com/ q/ Tattoos-3028/ 2008/ 8/ New-tattoo-Bruising-Leaking. htm), , retrieved 2009-10-08 [39] Tattoos, Body Piercings, and Other Skin Adornments (http:/ / www. aad. org/ public/ Publications/ pamphlets/ cosmetic_tattoos. html) [40] http:/ / www. vanishingtattoo. com/ tattooing_among_japans_ainu. htm
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[41] http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=GatewayURL& _origin=AUGATEWAY& _method=citationSearch& _piikey=S0003552103000840& _version=1& md5=f6dd58d559c19d58799b93a66225b038 [42] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ ncidod/ diseases/ hepatitis/ c/ tattoo. htm [43] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ bbp/ bodyart/ [44] http:/ / www. cfsan. fda. gov/ ~dms/ cos-204. html
Model (person) A model (from Middle French modèle),[1] sometimes called a mannequin, is a person who is employed for the purpose of displaying and promoting fashion clothing or other products and for advertising or promotionall purposes or who poses for works of art. Modeling is distinguished from other types of public performance, such as an acting, dancing or mime artist, although the boundary is not well defined. Appearing in a movie or a play is not considered modeling. However, models may be considered to express emotion in their photographs or video.
Cougar in a Dress.
Types of modeling include fashion, glamor, fitness, bikini, fine art, and body-part models. Models are features in a variety of media formats including books, magazines, movies, newspapers, and TV. The models themselves can be a featured part of a movie (Looker, Tattoo), reality television show (America's Next Top Model, The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency), or music video (Freedom! '90", "Wicked Game", "Daughters").
Social construction Various representations of beauty and fashion using models have caused controversy and is known to have some social impact, particularly on young people - both male and female.
Fashion models General Models may be used to display and promote clothing. Fashion modeling may involve catwalk or runway modeling or editorial modeling, covering photography for magazine spreads, ad campaigns, catalogues, print etc. The emphasis of fashion photography is on the clothes or accessories, not the model. Fashion models may be used to display or promote various types of clothing, such as lingerie, swimsuit, and bikini. Models may be used in showroom, fit modeling, fitness or sporty modeling. Some are used for petite modeling or plus-size modeling.
Fashion models on the runway.
The first person described as a fashion model is Parisian shopgirl, Marie Vernet Worth. She was a house model in 1852, to her fashion designer husband, Charles Frederick Worth.[2] [3]
Model (person)
Body types Because clothing is needed to be modeled for all people, a variety of shapes and sizes is required in models. Many models weigh about 110 pounds (50 kg) to 125 pounds (57 kg).
Female body type The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34-24-34 in (86-61-86 cm) and between 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) and 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) tall.[4] The ideal measurements used to be 35.5-23.5-35.5 in (90-60-90 cm), which were the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe. However, today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA recommended shape, although by no means do all models have these exact statistics, and fashion houses may require other sizes for their models. Although in some fashion industries, a size 00 is more ideal than a size 0.[5] The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for allegedly warping girls' body image and encouraging eating disorders.[6] Organizers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand.[7] In February 2007, six months after her sister, Luisel Ramos - also a model - died, Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third international model to die of malnutrition in six months. The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston.[8] Luisel Ramos died of heart failure caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk.
Male body type The preferred average dimensions for a male model are a height of 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m) to 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m), a waist of 26–33 in (66.04–83.82 cm) and a chest measurement of 32–40 in (81.28–101.60 cm).[4] Male runway models have been noted as being skinny and well toned to fit the clothes, whereas editorial models cover all body types from slender to muscular.[9]
Supermodels Supermodels are highly paid, high profile fashion models. These (usually female) celebrities, also known as cover girls, appear on top fashion magazine covers, in catalogues and in fashion shows. The first model widely considered to have paved the way for what would become the supermodel was Lisa Fonssagrives.[10] The relationship between her image on over 200 Vogue covers and her name recognition led to the importance of Vogue in shaping future supermodels. Her image appeared on the cover of fashion magazine during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s from Town & Country, Life and Vogue to the original Vanity Fair. Models like Dorian Leigh and Jean Shrimpton have also been dubbed the first supermodels.
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Glamour models Glamour photography emphasizes the model and the model's sexuality rather than products, fashion or the environment. Glamour modelling often focuses on the body of the subject and insinuations of sexuality serve to enhance a product's attractiveness. Glamour models may be used for mass-produced calendars, pinup and for men's magazines, such as Playboy magazine. Famous glamour models include Pamela Anderson, Jordan, Jodie Marsh, Lucy Pinder, and Louise Glover.
Glamour models posing on the red carpet - Hollywood, CA 03/09/2008
Fitness models Fitness modeling centers on displaying an athletic physique. Fitness models usually have defined muscles like bodybuilders, but with less emphasis on muscle size. Their body weight is usually similar to (or heavier than) fashion models, but they have a lower body fat percentage due to increased muscle mass relative to fat mass.
Bikini models Bikini models are also usually required to be obviously fit and with an appealing body shape. Bikini models can usually be shorter, around 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) to 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m)
Fitness model posing with dumbbell
Model (person)
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Artist's models Art models are models who pose for photographers, painters, sculptors, and other artists as part of their work of art. Models are frequently used for training art students, but are also employed by accomplished artists. The most common types of art created using models are figure drawing, figure painting, sculpture and photography. Although commercial motives dominate over the esthetics in advertising, its 'artwork' commonly employs models. Throughout the history of Western Art, drawing the human figure from living models was considered the most useful tool in developing the skill of draftsmanship. In the art school classroom setting, the purpose is to learn how to draw humans of all different shapes, ages and ethnicities, so there are no real limitations on who the model can be. In some cases, the model may pose with various props, one or more other models, animals etc., against real or artificial background, in natural or artificial light and so on. Models for life drawing classes are often entirely nude, apart from visually non-obstructive personal items such as small jewelry and Artist's model at work sometimes eyeglasses. In a job advertisement seeking nude models, this may be referred to as being "undraped" or "disrobed". (Alternatively, a cache-sexe may be worn. Eadward Muybridge's historic scientific studies of the male and female form in motion, for example, has examples of both usages.) In Western countries, there is generally no objection to either sex posing nude for or drawing members of the opposite sex. However, this was not always so in the past, particularly prior to the 20th century. In 1886 Thomas Eakins was famously dismissed from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art for removing the loincloth from a male model in a mixed classroom. Similarly, Victorian modesty required the female model to pose nude with her face draped (illustration). European arts academies did not allow women to study the nude at all until the end of the nineteenth century. Up into the present day some rare art classes prefer male models to wear a jockstrap. Policies vary regarding male models having an erection. Some instructors don't mind at all (especially with younger or inexperienced models), while others, including the Register of Artists' Models (RAM) in the United Kingdom, consider this as cause for termination.[11] In any case, it may be inconvenient for the artists, as the subject is not exactly the same as when the drawing session commenced.
Alternative models An alternative model is any model that does not fit into the conventional model types, and may include emo, punk, goth, fetish, tattooed models or having a distinctive attribute. These mix with high fashion and art models. Publishers such as Goliath in Germany have enabled alternative models and punk photography to become known to a larger audience.
Masked nude, drawing by Thomas Eakins (c. 1863–66)
Model (person)
Body part modeling Some models are employed for their particularly attractive body parts. For example, hand models may be used to promote nail care products, leg models are useful for showcasing tights, and wrist models are used to showcase watches or bracelets. Petite models or females who are under 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) have found success through body part modeling.
Working conditions Despite the stereotype of modeling as a lucrative and glamorous profession, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics the median wage for models was only $11.22 per hour in 2006.[12] MarketWatch listed modeling as one of the ten worst jobs in America.[12]
See also • • • •
Child modeling Figure drawing Hip hop model House model
• • • • • • • •
Internet modeling List of black fashion models Modeling agency Plus-size model Promotional model Spokesmodel Supermodel Time for print
References [1] http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ model [2] History from Modelworker (http:/ / www. modelworker. com/ history. html) [3] Walker, Harriet (4 May 2009). "Fabulous faces of fashion: A century of modelling" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ fashion/ features/ fabulous-faces-of-fashion-a--century-of-modelling-1678417. html). The Independent. . [4] AMA - AMA code of practice - Getting Started as a Model (http:/ / www. associationofmodelagents. org/ become-a-model/ getting-started-as-a-model. html) [5] Where Size 0 Doesn't Make the Cut (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 09/ 22/ opinion/ 22fri4. html?_r=1& scp=1& sq=Where Size 0 Doesn't Make the Cut& st=cse) [6] Nanci Hellmich, Do thin models warp girls' body image? (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ health/ 2006-09-25-thin-models_x. htm) USA Today 9/26/2006 [7] Skinny models banned from catwalk (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ europe/ 09/ 13/ spain. models/ index. html). CNN. September 13, 2006. [8] Ban on stick-think models illegal (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ dailytelegraph/ story/ 0,22049,21232157-5001021,00. html), Jennifer Melocco, The Daily Telegraph, February 16, 2007. [9] The Vanishing Point (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 02/ 07/ fashion/ shows/ 07DIARY. html) [10] Rosemary Ranck, "The First Supermodel" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 02/ 09/ books/ the-first-supermodel. html), The New York Times February 9, 1997. Retrieved September 24, 2006 [11] RAM Guidelines on selection of life models - Register of Artists' Models (http:/ / www. modelreg. co. uk/ 4. htm) [12] Mantell, Ruth (November 1, 2007). "The 10 worst jobs in America: Low pay, no benefits put these workers in a tough spot" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ news/ story/ 10-worst-jobs-america/ story. aspx?guid={6345DDB1-03BA-4760-B763-4F98BA9D9145}& dist=MostReadHome). MarketWatch (Dow Jones). . Retrieved 2008-01-31.
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Photography Photography is the process, activity and art of creating still or moving pictures by recording radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or an electronic sensor. Photography uses foremost radiation in the UV, visible and near-IR spectrum.[1] For common purposes the term light is used in stead of radiation. Light reflected or emitted from objects form a real image on a light sensitive area (film or plate) or a FPA pixel array sensor by means of a pin hole or lens in a device known as a camera during a timed exposure. The result on film or plate is a latent image, subsequently developed into a visual image (negative or diapositive). An image on paper base is known as a print. The result on the FPA pixel array sensor is an electrical charge at each pixel which is electronically processed and stored in a computer (raster)-image file for subsequent display or processing. Photography has many uses for business, science, manufacturing (f.i. Photolithography), art, and recreational purposes. As far as can be ascertained, it was Sir John Herschel in a lecture before the Royal Society of London, on March 14, 1839 who made the word "photography" known to the whole world. But in an article published on February 25 of the same year in an unknown and quite anonymous newspaper called the Vossische Zeitung, Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, used the word photography already.[2] The word photography is based on the Greek φῶς (photos) "light" and γραφή (graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together meaning "drawing with light".[3]
Function The camera or camera obscura is the image-forming device, and photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the sensing medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory.
Lens and mounting of a large-format camera.
Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to form a "latent image" (on film) or "raw file" (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film. The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a A historic camera: the Contax S of 1949 — the rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still first pentaprism SLR. camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.[4]
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In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:
Nikon F of 1959 — the first 35mm film system camera.
Late Production Minox B camera with later style "honeycomb" selenium light meter
A portable folding reflector positioned to "bounce" sunlight onto a model
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Control
Description
Focus
The adjustment to place the sharpest focus where it is desired on the subject.
Aperture
Adjustment of the lens opening, measured as f-number, which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and diffraction – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.
Shutter speed
Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.
White balance
On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.
Metering
Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many modern cameras meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with the use of a separate light metering device or by the photographer's knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate the amount of light into a usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light. This is done by setting the "film speed" or ISO sensitivity into the meter.
ISO speed
Traditionally used to "tell the camera" the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. The higher the ISO number the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower ISO number, the film is less sensitive to light. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light, hence it is 'correctly exposed,' indicated by a centered meter.
Autofocus point
On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.
Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are: • • • •
Focal length and type of lens (telephoto or "long" lens, macro, wide angle, fisheye, or zoom) Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths. The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.
Exposure and rendering Camera controls are inter-related. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the "exposure") changes with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations. The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop halves the amount of light.
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Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed. Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed film will exhibit less "grain", and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less "noise", while higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a smaller aperture to increase the depth of field. For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A tripod can also be helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used. For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens's range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures. Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame. Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include: • Chemicals and process used during film development • Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed
A photographer using a tripod for greater stability during long exposure
• Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field • Contrast – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background • Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas • Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas • Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc. • Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB) • Paper size • Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and white prints
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Uses Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.
History
First known surviving heliographic engraving, made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 by contact under an [5] engraving with the "heliographic process". This seminal work was a step towards the first permanent photography from nature taken with a camera obscura, in 1826.
Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[6] [7] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments,[8] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[7] [9] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,[10] and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride.[11] Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568.[12] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[13] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[12]
Invented in the first decades of the nineteenth century, photography (by way of the camera) seemed able to capture more detail and information than traditional mediums, such as painting and sculpting.[14] Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822[5] by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed by a later attempt to duplicate it.[5] Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the first permanent photograph from nature with a camera obscura in 1826.[15] However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1816 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1839 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839. Daguerre continued work on the Daguerreotype in hopes of reducing exposure and furthering the development of photography, eventually culminating in financial discrepancies between the two men concerning Niépce's original work not being accredited by Daguerre (consider the name "Daguerreotype"). Because of these discrepancies, the two men discontinued their partnership and retired from photographical research after selling the rights to the Daguerreotype to the French government.
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Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" still during long exposure times (studio and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a equipment nicknamed after the famed US solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of photographer, Mathew Brady). his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839. In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1860s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper. Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today. In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.
Processes Black-and-white All photography was originally monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image of blue and white for example. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones. Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, often because of the established archival permanence of well processed silver halide based materials. Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome.
Color
A black-and-white image showing a (monochrome) photograph being developed.
Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.
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One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick succession. Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and red light at last became available.
Early color photograph taken by Prokudin-Gorskii (1915).
The first commercially successful color process, the Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed grains of potato starch, and was one of many additive color screen products available between the 1890s and the 1950s. The presumably final use of the additive screen process for color photography on film was Polachrome, an "instant" 35 mm slide film introduced in the mid-1980s and discontinued in the mid-2000s. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the first modern ('integrated tri-pack') color film which was developed by two musicians Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky ("Man" and "God") working with the Kodak Research Labs. It was Kodachrome, based on multiple layered silver gelatin emulsions that were each sensitized to one of the three additive colors—red, green, and blue. The cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes were created in those layers by adding color couplers during processing. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neu. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, use such incorporated-coupler techniques, though since the 1970s nearly all have used a technique developed by Kodak to accomplish this, rather than the original Agfa method. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment.
Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.[16] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).
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Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting.
Digital photography Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born. Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras.[17] Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer.[18] [19]
A handheld digital camera, Canon Ixus class.
Olympus E-420 Four Thirds entry-level DSLR.
The Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields.
According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital.[20] According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the results of film to those of digital for certain applications including:
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• film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and large format films (48 percent); • • • •
creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent); capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent); the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and archival storage (38 percent)
Digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "illustrations," passing them as real photographs. Today's technology has made picture editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of RAW photos to verify against tampering of digital photos for forensics use.
Nikon DSLR and scanner, which converts film images to digital
Camera phones, combined with sites like Flickr, have led to a new kind of social photography.
Modes of production
Sony Ericsson K800i camera phone.
Amateur An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward.
Commercial Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:
Manual shutter control and exposure settings can achieve unusual results.
• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team. • Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually incorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes or product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may be nude, but this is not always the case. • Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
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• Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. • Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills. • Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine. • Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story. • Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images. • Landscape photography: photographs of different locations. • Wildlife photography that demonstrates life of the animals. • Photo sharing: publishing or transfer of a user's digital photos online. • Paparazzi The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography. Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.
Art During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art shows unique aesthetic of black and white photos. would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art. There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres,
Photography Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. —[21] On February 14, 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph "99 Cent II Diptychon" for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time. • Conceptual photography Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.
Science and forensics The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro Wootton bridge collapse in 1861 photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861 and the Staplehurst rail crash of 1865. One of the first systematic applications occurred at the scene of the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879. The court, just a few days after the accident, ordered James Valentine of Dundee to record the scene using both long distance shots and close-ups of the debris. The set of over 50 accident photographs was Original Tay Bridge from the north showing structure based on towers built from used in the subsequent court of inquiry so cast iron columns. When enlarged this plate shows a key design flaw in the bridge: the smaller surviving towers were supported by a continuous girder at their tops, that witnesses could identify pieces of the while the fallen towers lack this essential reinforcing element. wreckage, and the technique is now commonplace both at accident scenes and subsequent cases in courts of law. The set of over 50 Tay bridge photographs are of very high quality, being made on a large plate camera with a small aperture and using fine grain emulsion film on a glass plate. When the surviving positive prints are scanned at high resolution, they can be enlarged to show details of the failed components such as broken cast iron lugs and the tie bars
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Fallen Tay Bridge from the north. The two surviving high towers show a gap in their tops when the picture is enlarged.
Between 1846 and 1852 Charles Brooke invented a technology for the automatic registration of instruments by photography. These instruments included barometers, thermometers, psychrometers, and magnetometers, which recorded their readings by means of an automated
photographic process. Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and developed much further since that time.
Other image forming techniques 5×7 in. unretouched photograph of the Wright
Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are brothers' first flight, 1903. available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.
Social and cultural implications There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.[22] Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."[23] Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as a promoter of voyeuristic inhibitions. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.[23] Michal Powell's Peeping Tom (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.
Photography "The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."[23] Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.[24] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.[23] One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"[25] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze"[26] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.
Law Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.[27]
Computational Inference of Photo Aesthetics Since 2005, computer and information scientists at Penn State University have been developing a real-time system, ACQUINE (Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine), to infer photo aesthetics. The system leverages machine learning and statistical modeling techniques, as well as online manual ratings of photos. After a photograph is uploaded to the system, a score between 0 and 100 is given.[28]
See also Forms • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Aviation photography Architectural photography Candid photography Cloudscape photography Digiscoping Documentary photography Erotic photography Fashion photography Fine art photography Fire photography Food photography Forensic photography Glamour photography Head shot Landscape art
• Landscape photography • Miksang (contemplative photography)
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Photography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Nature photography Wedding photography Social photography Nude photography Old-time photography Photojournalism Portrait photography Sports photography Still life photography Stock photography Street photography Travel photography Underwater photography Vernacular photography VR photography War photography Wedding photography
• Wildlife photography Photographers and photographs • List of most expensive photographs • List of photographers • Movie stills photographer Equipment (cameras, etc.) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Camera Camera Phone Color chart Digital camera Digital single-lens reflex camera Dry box Film base Film format Film holder Film scanner Film stock Filter Flash Gray card Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras List of photographic equipment makers Monopod Movie projector Perspective control lens Photographic film Photographic lens
• Reflector • Rangefinder camera
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Photography • • • • • • • • • • •
SD Card(for digital photography) Single-lens reflex camera Slide projector Soft box Still camera Toy camera Tripod Twin-lens reflex camera Video camera View camera Zone plate
History • • • •
Albumen print Calotype Daguerreotype Timeline of photography technology
Techniques • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Aerial Photography Afocal photography Astrophotography Bokeh Contre-jour Cross processing Cyanotype Fill flash Film developing Full spectrum photography Harris Shutter High dynamic range imaging High speed photography Image fusion Infrared photography Kinetic photography Kite aerial photography Lead room Light painting Lith-Print Macro photography Micrography, or Photomicrography Monochrome Photography Motion blur Night photography Panning Panoramic photography
• Photogram • Photograph conservation
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Photography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Photographic mosaic Photographic print toning Push printing Push processing Rephotography Rollout photography Sabatier Effect Schlieren photography Stereoscopy Sun printing Tilted plane focus Time-lapse Ultraviolet photography Wide dynamic range Zoom burst
General concepts • Adobe Photoshop • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Camera obscura Composition in visual arts Diana camera Early photographers of York Gelatin-silver process Gum printing Hand-coloring Holography Kirlian photography Lomography Mourning portraits Negative North American Nature Photography Association Photograph Print permanence Vignetting
Technical principles • • • • • • • • • •
Angle of view Aperture Color temperature Depth of field Depth of focus Digital versus film photography Double exposure Exposure F-number Film format
• Film speed • Perspective distortion
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Photography • • • • • • • • •
Photographic printing Photographic processes Pinhole camera Reciprocity (photography) Red-eye effect Rule of thirds Science of photography Shutter speed Zone System
Further reading • Tom Ang (2002). Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer [29]. Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0817437894. • Freeman Patterson, Photography and The Art of Seeing, 1989, Key Porter Books, ISBN 1-55013-099-4. • The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005 • Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8. • Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914-1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8.
External links • The Center for Fine Art Photography [30] A non profit organization dedicated to promoting Photography as an Art Form. • World History of Photography [31] From The History of Art. • Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process [32] From the State Library & Archives of Florida. • Judging the authenticity of Photographs: 1800s to Today [33] Guide for collectors and historians • Rarities of the USSR photochronicles [34] Pioneers of Soviet Photography. • Aperture [35] A not-for-profit organisation dedicated to the advancement of photography. • "Every Picture Has a Story" [36] – uses pictures from the Smithsonian's collections to show the development of the technology through the nineteenth century. • Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988) [37] the online version of the original Shades of Light published 1998, Gael Newton, National Gallery of Australia. • The Royal Photographic Society [38] Promotes the art and science of photography in the U.K. • The virtual Cabinet Card museum [39] Historical photography of the 19th century
References [1] Spencer, D A (1973). The Focal Dictionary of Photographic Technologies. Focal Press. p. 454. ISBN 240 50747 9. [2] Eder, J.M (1945) [1932]. History of Photography, 4th. edition [Geschichte der Photographie]. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. pp. 258–259. ISBN 0486235866. [3] Online Etymology Dictionary (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=photography& searchmode=none) [4] Joseph and Barbara Anderson, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited," Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 3–12. http:/ / www. uca. edu/ org/ ccsmi/ ccsmi/ classicwork/ Myth%20Revisited. htm [5] "The First Photograph - Heliography" (http:/ / www. hrc. utexas. edu/ exhibitions/ permanent/ wfp/ heliography. html). . Retrieved 2009-09-29. "from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later." [6] Jan Campbell (2005). " Film and cinema spectatorship: melodrama and mimesis (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lOEqvkmSxhsC& pg=PA114& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Polity. p.114. ISBN 074562930X
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Photography [7] Robert E. Krebs (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=MTXdplfiz-cC& pg=PA20& dq=Mo-Ti+ pinhole+ camera+ obscura). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313324336. . [8] Alistair Cameron Crombie, Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought,p.205 [9] Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001). "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective". Perception 30 (10): 1157–1177. doi:10.1068/p3210. PMID 11721819. [10] Davidson, Michael W.; National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University (2003-08-01). "Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You - Timeline - Albertus Magnus" (http:/ / micro. magnet. fsu. edu/ optics/ timeline/ people/ magnus. html). The Florida State University. . Retrieved 2009-11-28. [11] Georges Potonniée (1973). "The history of the discovery of photography". Arno Press. p.50. ISBN 0405049293 [12] Helmut Gernsheim (1986). " A concise history of photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GDSRJQ3BZ5EC& pg=PA3& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Courier Dover Publications. pp.3-4. ISBN 0486251284 [13] Helmut Gernsheim, Alison Gernsheim (1955). "The history of photography from the earliest use of the camera obscura in the eleventh century up to 1914". Oxford University Press. p.20. [14] Witt, Brown, Dunbar, Tirro, Witt. The Humanities, Cultural Roots and Continuities, Seventh Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston. New York. 2005 [15] Seizing the Light: A History of Photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vftTAAAAMAAJ& q=Joseph+ Nicephore+ Niepce+ View+ From+ the+ Window+ of+ Gras& dq=Joseph+ Nicephore+ Niepce+ View+ From+ the+ Window+ of+ Gras& client=safari& cd=3) By Robert Hirsch [16] Spectral curves of RGB and Hot Mirror filters. (http:/ / surrealcolor. 110mb. com/ IR_explained_web/ IR_explained. htm#CamColor) [17] “Canon to Stop Making Single-Lens Camera” (http:/ / www. indexstockimagery. com/ archives/ 2006/ 05/ canon_to_stop_m. html) Associated Press, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2006. [18] www.voigtlaender.de (http:/ / www. voigtlaender. de/ cms/ voigtlaender/ voigtlaender_cms. nsf/ id/ pa_fdih7jzkae. html) [19] The new Voigtlaender Vitolux S70 and Bessa III 667 (http:/ / www. dcviews. com/ press/ Voigtlaender-Bessa. htm) [20] www.photographypress.co.uk (http:/ / www. photographypress. co. uk/ news/ news. phtml/ 6443/ 7467/ Kodak-Survey-Photographers-Use-Film. phtml) [21] Clive Bell. " Art (http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ ~jvancamp/ 361r13. html)", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006. [22] Bissell, K.L., Photography and Objectivity (2000) findarticles.com (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa3677/ is_200007/ ai_n8895320) (accessed 24/10/2008). [23] Sontag, S., On Photography, Penguin, London (1977), pp 3–24. [24] Levinson, P., The Soft Edge: a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York (1997), pp 37–48. [25] John Urry (2002). The tourist gaze (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bhhtg1sz0YAC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q=) (2nd ed.). SAGE. ISBN 9780761973478. . [26] Alex Gillespie. "Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze" (http:/ / stir. academia. edu/ documents/ 0011/ 0117/ Gillespie_tourist_photography_and_the_reverse_gaze. pdf). . [27] British Journal of Photography article (http:/ / www. bjp-online. com/ public/ showPage. html?page=836675) [28] ACQUINE Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine acquine.alipr.com (http:/ / acquine. alipr. com) [29] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fu3akyrFZEMC& pg=PP1& dq=intitle:Dictionary+ intitle:of+ intitle:Photography+ intitle:and+ intitle:Digital+ intitle:Imaging+ inauthor:ang [30] http:/ / www. c4fap. org [31] http:/ / all-art. org/ history658_photography1. html [32] http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ photographiccollection/ photo_exhibits/ photographic-processes/ [33] http:/ / www. cycleback. com/ photoguide/ index. html [34] http:/ / www. borodulincollection. com/ index_eng. html [35] http:/ / www. aperture. org/ [36] http:/ / www. smithsonianeducation. org/ educators/ lesson_plans/ every_picture/ index. html [37] http:/ / www. photo-web. com. au/ shadesoflight [38] http:/ / www. rps. org/ [39] http:/ / kabinettfoto. de/
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Videotape Videotape is a means of recording images and sound on to magnetic tape as opposed to movie film or random access digital media. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the data produced by an electrocardiogram. In most cases, a helical scan video head rotates against the moving tape to record the data in two dimensions, because video signals have a very high bandwidth, and static heads would require extremely high tape speeds. Videotape is used in both video tape An assortment of video tapes recorders (VTRs) or, more commonly and more recently, video cassette recorders (VCRs) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method of storing information and, since nearly all video recordings made nowadays are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random-access methods of storing digital video data become more common.
Early formats The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosby's production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE), gave the world's first demonstration of a videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device gave what were described as "blurred and indistinct" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (0.6 cm) audio tape moving at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second.[1] [2] A year later, an improved version, using one-inch (2.6 cm) magnetic tape, was shown to the press, who reportedly expressed amazement at the quality of the images, although they had a "persistent grainy quality that looked like a worn motion picture". Overall, the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film.[3] Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a commercial version available in 1954, but none came forth.[4] BCE demonstrated a color model in February 1955, using a longitudinal recording on half-inch (1.3 cm) tape, essentially similar to what RCA had demonstrated in 1953 (see below). CBS, RCA's competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system (see below).[5] RCA demonstrated the magnetic tape recording of both black-and-white and color programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1, 1953.[6] [7] The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record and play back only a few minutes of a program. The color system used half-inch (1.3 cm) tape to record five tracks — one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch (0.6 cm) tape with two tracks, one for picture and one for sound. Both systems ran at 360 inches (9.1 m) per second.[8] RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23, 1956, when a pre-recorded song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live program.[9] [10] The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA, but this was ultimately unfeasible. It used half-inch (1.27 cm) tape traveling at 200 inches (5.08 m) per second.
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Broadcast video Quad The first practical professional videotape machines capable of replacing kinescopes were the Quadruplex machines introduced by Ampex on April 14, 1956 at the National Association of Broadcasters convention in Chicago. Quad employed a transverse (scanning the tape across its width) four-head system on a two-inch (5.08 cm) tape, and linear heads for the sound track. CBS first used the Ampex VRX-1000[11] Mark IV at its Television City studios in Hollywood on November 30, 1956 to play a delayed broadcast of Douglas Edwards and the News from New York to the Pacific Time Zone.[11] [12] On January 22, 1957, the NBC game A reel of 2-inch quad videotape compared with a modern-day show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, miniDV videocassette became the first program to be broadcast in all time zones from a prerecorded videotape.[13] Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder.[14] NBC's 1958 special, An Evening With Fred Astaire, is the oldest surviving network color videotape. Although Quad became the industry standard for over 20 years, it had drawbacks such as an inability to freeze pictures, and no picture search; also, in early machines, a tape could reliably be played back using only the same set of hand-made tape heads, which wore out very quickly. Despite these problems, Quad could produce excellent images. Subsequent videotape systems have used helical scan, where the video heads record diagonal tracks (of complete fields) on to the tape. Very few early videotapes still exist.[15] While much less expensive and more convenient than kinescope, the high cost of 3M Scotch 179[11] and other early videotapes ($300 per one-hour reel)[16] meant that most broadcasters erased and reused them, and (in the United States) regarded videotape as simply a better and more cost-effective means of time-delaying broadcasts than kinescopes. It was the four time zones of the continental United States which had made the system very desirable in the first place.
Type C and Type B The next format to gain widespread usage was the 1" (2.54 cm) Type C format from 1976 onward. It introduced features such as shuttling and still framing, but the sound and picture reproduction attainable on the format were of just slightly lower quality than Quad (although 1" Type C's quality was still quite high). However, unlike Quad, 1" Type C machines required much less maintenance, took up less space, and consumed much less electrical power. In Europe a similar tape format was developed, called Type B. Type B machines (also known as BCN) used the same 1" tape as Type C but they lacked C's shuttle and slow-motion options. The picture quality was slightly better, though. Type B was the broadcast norm in continental Europe for most of the 1980s. December 7, 1963 - Instant Replay is used for the first time during the live transmission of the Army Navy Game by its inventor, director, Tony Verna.
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Cassette formats In 1969, Sony introduced a prototype for the first widespread video cassette, the 3/4" (1.905 cm) composite U-matic system, which Sony introduced commercially in September 1971 after working out industry standards with other manufacturers. Sony later refined it to Broadcast Video U-matic or BVU. Sony continued its hold on the professional market with its ever-expanding 1/2" (1.27 cm) component video Betacam family (introduced in 1982), which, in its digital variants, is still among the professional market leaders. Panasonic had some limited success with its MII system, but never could compare to Betacam in terms of market share.
A U-matic tape
The next step was the digital revolution. Among the first digital video formats Sony's D-1, which featured uncompressed digital component recording. Because D-1 was extremely expensive, the composite D-2 and D-3 (by Sony and Panasonic, respectively) were introduced soon after. Ampex introduced the first compressed component recording with its DCT series in 1992. Panasonic trumped D-1 with its D-5 format, which was uncompressed as well, but much more affordable. The DV standard, which debuted in 1996, has become widely used both in its native form and in more robust forms such as Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO as an acquisition and editing format. However, due to concerns by the entertainment industry about the format's lack of copy protection, only the smaller MiniDV cassettes used with camcorders became commonplace, with the full-sized DV cassettes restricted entirely to professional applications. For camcorders, Sony adapted the Betacam system with its Digital Betacam format, later following it up with the cheaper Betacam SX and MPEG IMX formats, and the semiprofessional DV-based DVCAM system. Panasonic used its DV variant DVCPRO for all professional cameras, with the higher-end format DVCPRO50 being a direct descendant. JVC developed the competing D9/Digital-S format, which compresses video data in a way similar to DVCPRO but uses a cassette similar to S-VHS media.
Videotape
High definition The introduction of HDTV production necessitated a medium for storing high-resolution video information. In 1997, Sony bumped its Betacam series up to HD with the HDCAM standard and its higher-end cousin HDCAM SR. Panasonic's competing format for cameras was based on DVCPRO and called DVCPRO HD. For VTR and archive use, Panasonic expanded the D-5 specification to store compressed HD streams and called it D-5 HD. By Don Ortiz
Home video VCRs The first consumer videocassette recorders were launched in 1971 (based around U-matic technology). Philips entered the domestic market the following year with the N1500[17] . Sony's Betamax (1975) and JVC's VHS (1976) created a mass-market for VCRs and the two competing systems battled the "videotape format war", which VHS ultimately won. At first VCRs were very expensive, but by the late 1980s the price had come down enough to make them affordable to a mainstream audience. Videocassettes finally made it possible for consumers to buy or rent a complete film and watch it at home whenever they wished, rather than simply catching it at a movie theatre or having to wait Bottom view of VHS videotape cassette with magnetic tape exposed until it was telecast. It also made it possible for a VCR owner to record films and other television programs "off the air". This caused an enormous change in viewing practices, as one no longer had to wait for a repeat of a program that had been missed. The shift to home viewing also changed the movie industry's revenue streams, because home renting created an additional "window" in which a film could make money. In some cases, films that did only modestly in their theater releases went on to have strong performance in the rental market (e.g., cult films). VHS has become the leading consumer VCR format after the "war", though its follow-ups S-VHS, W-VHS and D-VHS never caught up in popularity. In the late 1990s in the prerecorded video market, VHS began to be displaced by DVD. The DVD format had several advantages over VHS tape. A DVD disk is much better able to take repeated viewings than VHS tape, which can crack or break, which makes DVDs a better format from a rental store's perspective. As well, whereas a VHS tape can be erased if it is exposed to a magnetic field (such as by being left near a speaker), DVDs are not affected by magnetic fields. Even though DVDs do not have the problems of tapes, such as breakage of the tape or the cassette mechanism, DVDs can still be damaged by scratches. Another factor for movie rental stores is that DVDs are smaller and take less space to store. DVDs offer a number of advantages for the viewer: DVDs can support both standard 4x3 and widescreen 16x9 screen aspect ratios and DVDs can provide twice the video resolution than VHS. As well, a viewer who wants to skip ahead to the end of a movie can do so much quicker with a DVD than with a VHS tape (that has to be rewound). DVDs can have interactive menus, multiple language tracks, audio commentaries, Closed Captioning and subtitling (with the option of turning the subtitles on or off, or selecting subtitles in several languages). Moreover, a DVD can be played on a computer. Due to these advantages, by the mid-2000s, DVDs were the dominant form of prerecorded video movies in both the rental film and new movie markets. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, though, consumers continued to use VCRs to record over-the-air TV shows, because consumers could not make home recordings onto DVD disks. This last barrier to DVD domination was broken in the late 2000s, with the advent of inexpensive DVD recorders and digital
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Videotape video recorders (DVR). DVR devices, which record shows onto a hard disk, can be purchased from electronics stores or rented from cable or satellite TV providers. Despite the mainstream dominance of DVD, VHS continues to have a role. The conversion to DVD has led to the marketplace being flooded with used VHS films, which are available at pawnshops and second-hand stores, typically for a cheaper price than the equivalent film on a used DVD. As well, due to the large number of VHS players in schools and libraries, VHS tapes are still produced for the educational market.
Camcorders Early consumer camcorders used full-size VHS or Betamax cassettes. Later models switched to more compact formats, designed explicitly for camcorder use, like VHS-C and Video8. VHS-C was a downsized version of VHS, using the same recording method and the same tape, but in a smaller cassette. It was possible to play VHS-C tapes in a regular VHS tape recorder by using an adaptor. After Super VHS had appeared, a corresponding compact version, Super VHS-C, was released as well. Video8 was an indirect descendant of Betamax, using narrower tape and a smaller cassette. Because of its intricate U-shaped tape loading and DV cassettes narrower tape, it was not possible to develop an adapter Left to right: DVCAM-L, DVCPRO-M, DVC/MiniDV from Video8 to Betamax. Video8 was later replaced with Hi8, which provided better resolution and high-quality sound recording, and was similar to Super VHS-C. The first consumer digital video recording format, introduced in 1995, used a smaller Digital Video Cassette (DVC).[18] The format was later renamed MiniDV to reflect the DV encoding scheme, but the tapes still carry "DVC" mark. Some later formats like DVC Pro from Panasonic reflect the original name. The DVC/MiniDV format provided near-broadcast quality video and sophisticated nonlinear editing capability on consumer equipment. In 1999 Sony backported the DV recording scheme to 8-mm systems, creating Digital8. By using the same cassettes as Hi8, many Digital8 camcorders were able to play analog Video8/Hi8 recordings, preserving compatibility with already recorded analog tapes. As of 2008, Digital8 camcorders have been removed from the equipment offered by Sony. Sony introduced another camcorder cassette format called MicroMV, but consumer interest was low due to the proprietary nature of the format and limited support for anything but low-end Windows video editors, and Sony shipped the last MicroMV unit in 2005. In the late 2000s, MiniDV and its high-definition cousin, HDV, are the two most popular consumer tape-based formats. The formats use different encoding methods, but the same cassette type. Since 2001, when MicroMV was presented, no new tape form factors have been introduced.
Future of tape The latest trend in consumer camcorders shows the switch from tape-based to tapeless solutions, like built-in hard disk drives, optical discs and solid-state memory. In particular, Canon have not introduced a completely new HDV consumer camcorder for a third year in a row, confining itself to minor modifications to the 2007 model. Sony and Panasonic have removed their consumer tape-based camcorders from the North American market completely. In professional video recording settings, such as broadcast television, videotape was still heavily used in the mid- to late 2000s, but tapeless formats like DVCPRO P2, XDCAM and AVCHD, are gaining broader acceptance.
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Videotape
External links • The Loss of Early Video Recordings [19] • History of Recording Technology [20] (WayBack Machine) • History of Magnetic Tape [21] (WayBack Machine)
References [1] "Tape Recording Used by Filmless 'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12, 1951, p. 21. [2] Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN 0-070-41275-8 [3] "Tape-Recorded TV Nears Perfection," New York Times, Dec. 31, 1952, p. 10. [4] "New Deal on TV Seen at Parley," New York Times, May 1, 1953, p. 30. [5] Daniel et al., p. 148. BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. [6] "Magnetic Tape Used By RCA to Photograph Television Program," The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 2, 1953, p. 1. [7] " Color TV on Tape (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Nd8DAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA157)", Popular Mechanics, April 1954, p. 157. [8] Stewart Wolpin, "The Race to Video" (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ it/ 1994/ 2/ 1994_2_52. shtml), Invention & Technology, Fall 1994. [9] " TV Goes to Tape (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vyoDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA238)", Popular Science, Feb. 1960, p. 238. [10] Ed Reitan, RCA-NBC Firsts in Color Television (commented) (http:/ / novia. net/ ~ereitan/ rca-nbc_firsts. html). [11] " Charles P. Ginsburg (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=4779& page=84)". Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Vol. 7. 1994: The National Academies Press, Washington DC. [12] Ampex Corporation, Ampex Chronology (http:/ / www. ampex. com/ 03corp/ 03corp. html). [13] "Daily N.B.C. Show Will Be on Tape", New York Times, Jan. 18, 1957, p. 31. [14] " Industry Agrees to Standardize Tape Recording on Ampex Lines (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ICkEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA3)", Billboard, Oct. 28, 1957, p. 3. [15] Some early broadcast videotapes have survived, including The Edsel Show, broadcast live in 1957, and 1958's An Evening With Fred Astaire, the oldest color videotape of an entertainment program known to exist (the oldest color videotape is the May 1958 dedication of the WRC-TV studios in Washington, DC). In 1976, NBC's 50th anniversary special included an excerpt from a 1957 color special starring Donald O'Connor; despite some obvious technical problems, the color tape was remarkably good. [16] Elen, Richard G. " TV Technology (http:/ / www. screenonline. org. uk/ tv/ technology/ technology10. html)". BFI Screenonline. [17] http:/ / www. rewindmuseum. com/ philips. htm [18] "DVC Product Probe" (http:/ / www. videomaker. com/ article/ 2381/ ). . [19] http:/ / palimpsest. stanford. edu/ byorg/ abbey/ an/ an21/ an21-7/ an21-708. html [20] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040603152849/ http:/ / www. tvhandbook. com/ History/ History_recording. htm [21] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040603153341/ www. tvhandbook. com/ History/ History_tape. htm
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Check mark
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Check mark A tick (known as a check mark or check in American English) is a mark (✓, ✔, ☑, etc.) used to indicate the concept "yes", for example "yes; this has been verified" or, "yes; that is the correct answer". The x mark is also sometimes used for this purpose (most notably on election ballot papers), but otherwise usually indicates "no", incorrectness, or failure. As a verb, to tick (off) or to check (off) means to add such a mark. It is quite common, especially on printed forms, printed documents, and computers (see check box), for there to be squares in which to place ticks. In some European countries (e.g., Finland and Sweden), and in Japan, the tick can be used as an error mark and indicates "no" rather than "yes". In Japan, an "O Mark" (in the appearance of a circle, Unicode symbol "◯"), also known as "丸印" marujirushi, is used instead of a tick to mean "yes"; this symbol is also used in Korea and China. A tick placed in brackets can mean a previously used or acceptable fact or definition is being looked into, usually for the purpose of expanding academic research. A rainbow-colored tick was also used for the Amiga logo during the Commodore era of the Amiga (1985–1994).
Unicode Unicode provides various related symbols, including: Symbol Unicode Codepoint (Hex)
✓ ✔ ☐ ☑
Name
U+2713
CHECK MARK (tick)
U+2714
HEAVY CHECK MARK (bold tick)
U+2610
BALLOT BOX (square)
U+2611
BALLOT BOX WITH CHECK (square with tick)
See also • Tally marks • X mark • Brackets
External links • http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2713/index.htm
Liberty Bell
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Liberty Bell Geographical coordinates: 39°56′58.15″N 75°9′1.06″W
Liberty Bell Independence Bell, Old State House Bell Tower Bell
Country
United States
State
Pennsylvania
City
Philadelphia
Location
Liberty Bell Center
- elevation
30 ft (9 m)
- coordinates
39°56′58.15″N 75°9′1.06″W
Circumference 12 ft (3.7 m) Weight
2080 lb (900 kg)
Caster
Whitechapel Bell Foundry
Materials Cast Owner
Copper, Tin 1752 (Recast 1753 by Pass and Stow) City of Philadelphia
Location of the Liberty Bell within Pennsylvania Website: nps.gov/inde/liberty-bell-center.htm Liberty Bell Center
[1]
The Liberty Bell is one of the iconic symbols of American independence. Located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, it most likely was rung to mark the public reading of the American Declaration of Independence on July 8, 1776.
Liberty Bell The bell was commissioned from the London firm of Lester and Pack (today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry) in 1752, and was inscribed with part of a verse from the Book of Leviticus (25:10): "Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." It originally cracked when first rung after arrival in Philadelphia, and was twice recast by local workmen John Pass and John Stow, whose last names appear on the bell. The bell hung for years in the steeple of the Pennsylvania State House (today known as Independence Hall), and was used to summon lawmakers to legislative sessions and to alert citizens to public meetings and proclamations. Bells were rung to mark the reading of the Declaration on July 8, 1776, and while there is no contemporary account of the Liberty Bell ringing, most historians believe it was one of the bells rung. After American independence was secured, it fell into relative obscurity for some years. In the 1830s, the bell was adopted as a symbol by abolitionist societies, who dubbed it the "Liberty Bell". It acquired its distinctive large crack sometime in the early 19th century—a widespread story claims it cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835. The bell became widely famous after a 1847 short story claimed that an aged bell-ringer rang it on July 4, 1776, upon hearing of the Second Continental Congress's vote for independence. While the bell could not have been rung on that Fourth of July, as no announcement of the Declaration was made that day, the tale was widely accepted as fact, even by some historians. Beginning in 1885, the City of Philadelphia, which owns the bell, allowed it to go to various expositions and patriotic gatherings. The bell attracted huge crowds wherever it went, but returned to Philadelphia with additional cracking and with pieces chipped away by souvenir hunters, and the city put an end to these journeys after 1915. After World War II, the city allowed the National Park Service to take custody of the bell, while retaining ownership. The bell was used as a symbol of freedom during the Cold War and was a popular site for protests in the 1960s. It was moved from its longstanding home in Independence Hall to a nearby glass pavilion on Independence Mall in 1976, and then to the larger Liberty Bell Center adjacent to the pavilion in 2003. The bell has been featured on coins and stamps, and its name and image have been widely used by corporations.
Founding (1751–1753) Philadelphia's city bell had been used to alert the public to proclamations or civic danger since the city's 1682 founding. The original bell hung from a tree behind the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) and was said to have been brought to the city by its founder, William Penn. In 1751, with a bell tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House, civic authorities sought a bell of better quality, which could be heard at a further distance in the rapidly-expanding city.[2] Isaac Norris, speaker of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, gave orders to the colony's London agent, Robert Charles, to obtain a "good Bell of about two thousands pound weight".[3] We hope and rely on thy care and assistance in this affair and that thou wilt procure and forward it by the first good oppo as our workmen inform us it will be much less trouble to hang the Bell before their Scaffolds are struck from the Building where we intend to place it which will not be done 'till the end of next Summer or beginning of the Fall. Let the bell be cast by the best workmen & examined carefully before it is Shipped with the following words well shaped around it vizt. By Order of the Assembly of the Povince [sic] of Pensylvania [sic] for the State house in the City of Philada 1752 and Underneath Proclaim Liberty thro' all the Land to all the Inhabitants thereof.-Levit. XXV. 10.[3] Charles duly ordered the bell from Thomas Lester of the London bellfounding firm of Lester and Pack (today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry)[4] for the sum of £150 13s 8d,[5] (equivalent to approximately $36,400 today)[6] including freight to Philadelphia and insurance. It arrived in Philadelphia in August 1752; Norris wrote to Charles that the bell was in good order, but they had not yet sounded it, as they were building a clock for the State House's
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Liberty Bell tower.[7] The bell was mounted on a stand to test the sound, and at the first strike of the clapper, the bell's rim cracked. The episode would be used to good account in later stories of the bell;[8] in 1893, former President Benjamin Harrison, speaking as the bell passed through Indianapolis, stated, "This old bell was made in England, but it had to be re-cast in America before it was attuned to proclaim the right of self-government and the equal rights of men."[9] Philadelphia authorities tried to return it by ship, but the master of the vessel which had brought it was unable to take it on board.[10] Two local founders, John Pass and John Stow, offered to recast the bell. Though they were inexperienced in bell casting, Pass had headed the Mount Holly Iron Foundry in neighboring New Jersey and came from Malta, which had a tradition of bell casting. Stow, on the other hand, was only four years out of his apprenticeship as a brass founder. At Stow's foundry on Second Street, the bell was broken into small pieces, melted down, and cast into a new bell. The two founders decided that the metal was too brittle, and augmented the bell metal by about ten percent, using The Bell's First Note by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris copper. The bell was ready in March 1753, and Norris reported that the lettering (which included the founders' names and the year) was even clearer on the new bell than on the old.[11] City officials scheduled a public celebration with free food and drink for the testing of the recast bell. When the bell was struck, it did not break, but the sound produced was described by one hearer as like two coal scuttles being banged together. Mocked by the crowd, Pass and Stow hastily took the bell away and again recast it. At the time, metalworkers were not aware that repeated recasting of a bell would weaken it. When the fruit of the two founders' renewed efforts was brought forth in June 1753, the sound was deemed satisfactory, though Norris indicated that he did not personally like it. The bell was hung in the steeple of the State House the same month.[12] The reason for the difficulties with the bell is not certain. The Whitechapel Foundry, still in business today, takes the position that the bell was either damaged in transit or was broken by an inexperienced bell ringer, who incautiously sent the clapper flying against the rim, rather than the body of the bell.[13] In 1975, the Winterthur Museum conducted an analysis of the metal in the bell, and concluded that 'a series of errors made in the construction, reconstruction, and second reconstruction of the Bell resulted in a brittle bell that barely missed being broken up for scrap".[14] The Museum found a considerably higher level of tin in the Liberty Bell than in other Whitechapel bells of that era, and suggested that Whitechapel made an error in the alloy, perhaps by using scraps with a high level of tin to begin the melt instead of the usual pure copper.[15] The analysis found that, on the second recasting, instead of adding pure tin to the bell metal, Pass and Stow added cheap pewter with a high lead content, and incompletely mixed the new metal into the mold.[16] The result was "an extremely brittle alloy which not only caused the Bell to fail in service but made it easy for early souvenir collectors to knock off substantial trophies from the rim".[17]
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Liberty Bell
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Early days (1754–1846) Dissatisfied with the bell, Norris instructed Charles to order a second one, and see if Whitechapel would take back the first bell and credit the value of the metal towards the bill. In 1754, the Assembly decided to keep both bells; the new one was attached to the tower clock[18] while the old bell was, by vote of the Assembly, devoted "to such Uses as this House may hereafter appoint."[18] The Pass and Stow bell was used to summon the Assembly.[19] One of the earliest documented mentions of the bell's use is in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to Catherine Ray dated October 16, 1755: "Adieu. The Bell rings, and I must go Independence Hall as it appeared in the 1770s among the Grave ones, and talk Politiks. [sic]"[20] The bell was rung in 1760 to mark the accession of George III to the throne.[19] In the early 1760s, the Assembly allowed a local church to use the State House for services and the bell to summon worshipers, while the church's building was being constructed.[20] The bell was also used to summon people to public meetings, and in 1772, a group of citizens complained to the Assembly that the bell was being rung too frequently.[19] Despite the legends that have grown up about the Liberty Bell, it did not ring on July 4, 1776, as no public announcement was made of the Declaration of Independence. When the Declaration was publicly read on July 8, 1776, there was a ringing of bells, and while there is no contemporary account of this particular bell ringing, most authorities agree that the Liberty Bell was among the bells that rang.[21] [22] However, there is some chance that the poor condition of the State House bell tower prevented the bell from ringing.[22] According to John C. Paige, who wrote a historical study of the bell for the National Park Service, "We do not know whether or not the steeple was still strong enough to permit the State House bell to ring on this day. If it could possibly be rung, we can assume it was. Whether or not it did, it has come to symbolize all of the bells throughout the United States which proclaimed Independence."[23] If the bell was rung, it would have been most likely rung by Andrew McNair, who was the doorkeeper both of the Assembly and of the Congress, and was responsible for ringing the bell. As McNair was absent on two unspecified days between April and November, it might have been rung by William Hurry, who succeeded him as doorkeeper for Congress.[24] Bells were also rung to celebrate the first anniversary of Independence on July 4, 1777.[22] After Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless, and the city prepared for what was seen as an inevitable British attack. Bells could easily be recast into munitions, and locals feared the Liberty Bell and other bells would meet this fate. The bell was hastily taken down from the tower, and sent by heavily-guarded wagon train to the town of Bethlehem. Local wagoneers transported the bell to the Zion German Reformed Church in Allentown, where it waited out the British occupation of Philadelphia behind a false wall.[25] It was returned to Philadelphia in June 1778, after the British departure. With the steeple of the State House in poor condition (the steeple was subsequently torn down and later restored), the bell was placed in storage, and it was not until 1785 that it was again mounted for ringing.[26]
The Liberty Bell is paraded through the streets of Philadelphia, 1908, in a recreation of its 1777 journey to Allentown
Mounted on an upper floor of the State House, the bell was rung in the early years of independence on the Fourth of July and on Washington's Birthday, as well as on Election Day to remind voters to hand in their ballots. It also rang
Liberty Bell to call students at the University of Pennsylvania to their classes at nearby Philosophical Hall. Until 1799, when the state capital was moved to Lancaster, it again rang to summon legislators into session.[27] When the State of Pennsylvania, having no further use for its State House, proposed to tear it down and sell the land for building lots, the City of Philadelphia purchased the land, together with the building, including the bell, for $70,000.[28] In 1828, the city sold the second Whitechapel bell to St. Augustine's Roman Catholic Church, which was burned down by an anti-Catholic mob in the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of 1844. The remains of the bell were recast into a new bell, which is found at Villanova University.[29] It is uncertain how the bell came to be cracked; the damage occurred sometime between 1817 and 1846. The bell is mentioned in a number of newspaper articles during that time; no mention of a crack can be found until 1846. In fact, in 1837, the bell was depicted in an anti-slavery publication—uncracked. In February 1846 Public Ledger reported that the bell had been rung on February 23, 1846 in celebration of Washington's Birthday (as February 22 fell on a Sunday, the celebration occurred the next day), and also reported that the bell had long been cracked, but had been "put in order" by having the sides of the crack filed. The paper reported that around noon, it was discovered that the ringing had caused the crack to be greatly extended, and that "the old Independence Bell...now hangs in the great city steeple irreparably cracked and forever dumb".[30] The most common story about the cracking of the bell is that it happened when the bell was rung upon the 1835 death of the Chief Justice of the United States, John Marshall. This story originated in 1876, when the volunteer curator of Independence Hall, Colonel Frank Etting, announced that he had ascertained the truth of the story. While there is little evidence to support this view, it has been widely accepted and taught. Other claims regarding the crack in the bell include stories that it was damaged while welcoming Lafayette on his return to the United States in 1824, that it cracked announcing the passing of the British Catholic Relief Act 1829, and that some boys had been invited to ring the bell, and inadvertently damaged it. David Kimball, in his book compiled for the National Park Service, suggests that it most likely cracked sometime between 1841 and 1845, either on the Fourth of July or on Washington's Birthday.[31] The Pass and Stow bell was first termed "the Liberty Bell" in the New York Anti-Slavery Society's journal, Anti-Slavery Record. In an 1835 piece, "The Liberty Bell", Philadelphians were castigated for not doing more for the abolitionist cause. Two years later, another work of that society, the journal Liberty featured an image of the bell as its frontispiece, with the words "Proclaim Liberty".[32] In 1839, Boston's Friends of Liberty, another abolitionist group, titled their journal The Liberty Bell. The same year, William Lloyd Garrison's anti-slavery publication The Liberator reprinted a Boston abolitionist pamphlet containing a poem entitled, "The Liberty Bell," which noted that, at that time, despite its inscription, the bell did not proclaim liberty to all the inhabitants of the land.[33]
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Liberty Bell
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Becoming a symbol (1847–1865) A great part of the modern image of the bell as a relic of the proclamation of American independence was forged by writer George Lippard. On January 2, 1847, his story "Fourth of July, 1776" appeared in Saturday Review magazine. The short story depicted an aged bellman on July 4, 1776, sitting morosely by the bell, fearing that Congress would not have the courage to declare independence. At the most dramatic moment, a young boy appears with instructions for the old man: to ring the bell. The story was widely reprinted and closely linked the Liberty Bell to the Declaration of Independence in the public mind.[34] The elements of the story were reprinted in early historian Beson J. Lossing's The Pictorial Field Guide to the Revolution (published in 1850) as historical fact,[35] and the tale was widely repeated for generations to come in school primers.[36] The Bellman Informed of the In 1848, with the rise of interest in the bell, the city decided to move it to the Passage of the Declaration of Assembly Room (also known as the Declaration Chamber) on the first floor, Independence: an 1854 depiction of where the Declaration and United States Constitution had been debated and the story of the Liberty Bell being signed.[37] The city constructed an ornate pedestal for the bell. The Liberty Bell rung on July 4, 1776 was displayed on that pedestal for the next quarter-century, surmounted by an eagle (originally sculpted, later stuffed).[38] In 1853, President Franklin Pierce visited Philadelphia and the bell, and spoke of the bell as symbolizing the American Revolution and American liberty.[39] At the time, Independence Hall was also used as a courthouse, and African-American newspapers pointed out the incongruity of housing a symbol of liberty in the same building in which federal judges were holding hearings under the Fugitive Slave Act.[40]
In February 1861, the President-elect, Abraham Lincoln, came to the Assembly Room and delivered an address en route to his inauguration in Washington DC.[41] In 1865, Lincoln's body was returned to the Assembly Room after his assassination for a public viewing of his body, en route to his burial in Springfield, Illinois. Due to time constraints, only a small fraction of those wishing to pass by the coffin were able to; the lines to see the coffin were never less than 3 miles (4.8 km) long.[42] Nevertheless, between 120,000 and 140,000 people were able to pass by the open casket and then the bell, carefully placed at Lincoln's head so mourners could read the inscription, "Proclaim Liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof."[41]
Traveling icon of freedom (1866–1947)
The Liberty Bell on its ornate stand, 1872
In 1876, city officials discussed what role the bell should play in the nation's Centennial festivities. Some wanted to repair it so it could sound at the Centennial Exposition being held in Philadelphia, but the idea was not adopted; the bell's custodians concluded that it was unlikely that the metal could be made into a bell which would have a pleasant sound, and that the crack had become part of the bell's character. Instead, a replica weighing 13000 pounds (5900 kg) (1,000 pounds for each of the original states) was cast. The metal used for what was dubbed "the Centennial Bell" included four melted-down cannons: one used by each side in the American Revolutionary War, and one used by each side in the Civil War. That bell was sounded at the Exposition grounds on July 4, 1876, was later recast to improve the sound, and today is the bell attached to the clock in the steeple of
Liberty Bell Independence Hall.[43] While the Liberty Bell did not go to the Exposition, a great many Exposition visitors came to visit it, and its image was ubiquitous at the Exposition grounds—myriad souvenirs were sold bearing its image or shape, and state pavilions contained replicas of the bell made of substances ranging from stone to tobacco.[44] In 1877, the bell was hung from the ceiling of the Assembly Room by a chain with thirteen links.[45] Between 1885 and 1915, the Liberty Bell made seven trips to various expositions and celebrations. Each time, the bell traveled by rail, making a large number of stops along the way so that local people could view it.[46] By 1885, the Liberty Bell was internationally recognized as a symbol of freedom, and as a treasured relic of independence, and was growing still more famous as versions of Lippard's legend were reprinted in history and school books.[47] In early 1885, the city agreed to let it travel to New Orleans for the World Cotton Centennial exposition. Large crowds mobbed the bell at each stop. In Biloxi, Mississippi, the former President of the Confederate States of America, Jefferson Davis came to the bell. Davis delivered a speech paying homage to it, and urging national unity.[48] In 1893, it was sent to Chicago's World Columbian Exposition to be the centerpiece of the state's exhibit in the Pennsylvania Building.[49] On July 4, 1893, in Chicago, the bell was honored with the first performance of The Liberty Bell March, conducted by "America's Bandleader", John Phillip Sousa.[50] Philadelphians began to cool to the idea of sending it to other cities when it returned from Chicago bearing a new crack, and each new proposed journey met with increasing opposition.[51] It was also found that the bell's private watchman had been cutting off small pieces for souvenirs. The city placed the bell in a glass-fronted oak case in the Assembly Room.[52] In 1898, it was taken out of the glass case and hung from its yoke again in the tower hall of Independence Hall, a room which would remain its home until the end of 1975. A guard was posted to discourage souvenir hunters who might otherwise chip at it. [53] By 1909, the bell had made six trips, and not only had the cracking become worse, but souvenir hunters had deprived it of over one percent of its weight. When, in 1912, the organizers of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition requested the bell for the 1915 fair in San Francisco, the city was reluctant to let it travel again. The city finally decided to let it go as the bell had never been west of St. Louis, and it was a chance to bring it to millions who might never see it otherwise.[54] However, in 1914, fearing that the cracks might lengthen during the long train ride, the city installed a metal support The Liberty Bell visits Bunker Hill (obelisk structure inside the bell, generally called the "spider."[55] In February visible background left) in 1903. 1915, the bell was tapped gently with wooden mallets to produce sounds which were transmitted to the fair as the signal to open it, a transmission which also inaugurated transcontinental telephone service.[56] Some five million Americans saw the bell on its train journey west.[57] It is estimated that nearly two million kissed it at the fair, with an uncounted number viewing it. The bell was taken on a different route on its way home; again, five million saw it on the return journey.[58] Since the bell returned to Philadelphia, it has been moved out of doors only five times: three times for patriotic observances during and after World War I, and twice as the bell occupied new homes in 1976 and 2003.[51] [59] Chicago and San Francisco had obtained its presence after presenting petitions signed by hundreds of thousands of children. Chicago tried again, with a petition signed by 3.4 million schoolchildren, for the 1933 Century of Progress Exhibition and New York presented a petition to secure a visit from the bell for the 1939 New York World's Fair. Both efforts failed.[60] In 1924, one of Independence Hall's exterior doors was replaced by glass, allowing some view of the bell even when the building was closed.[61] When Congress enacted the nation's first peacetime draft in 1940, the first Philadelphians required to serve took their oaths of enlistment before the Liberty Bell. Once the war started, the bell was again a symbol, used to sell war bonds.[62] In the early days of World War II, it was feared that the bell might be in danger from saboteurs or enemy bombing, and city officials considered moving the bell to Fort Knox, to be stored with the nation's gold reserves. The idea provoked a storm of protest from around the nation, and was abandoned. Officials
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Liberty Bell then considered building an underground steel vault above which it would be displayed, and into which it could be lowered if necessary. The project was dropped when studies found that the digging might undermine the foundations of Independence Hall.[63] The bell was again tapped on D-Day, as well as in victory on V-E Day and V-J Day.[64]
Park Service administration (1948–present) After World War II, and following considerable controversy, the City of Philadelphia agreed that it would transfer custody of the bell and Independence Hall, while retaining ownership, to the federal government. The city would also transfer various colonial-era buildings it owned. Congress agreed to the transfer in 1948, and three years later Independence National Historical Park was founded, incorporating those properties and administered by the National Park Service (NPS or Park Service).[65] The Park Service would be responsible for maintaining and displaying the bell.[66] The NPS would also administer the three blocks just north of Independence Hall, which had been condemned by the state, razed, and developed into a park, Independence Mall. [65] In the postwar period, the bell became a symbol of freedom used in the Cold A National Park Service ranger gives War. The bell was chosen for the symbol of a savings bond campaign in 1950. a talk about the Liberty Bell to The purpose of this campaign, as Vice President Alben Barkley put it, was to tourists, Independence Hall, July make the country "so strong that no one can impose ruthless, godless ideologies 1951 on us".[66] In 1955, former residents of nations behind the Iron Curtain were allowed to tap the bell as a symbol of hope and encouragement to their compatriots.[67] Foreign dignitaries, such as Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and West Berlin Mayor Ernst Reuter were brought to the bell, and they commented that the bell symbolized the link between the United States and their nations.[66] During the 1960s, the bell was the site of several protests, both for the civil rights movement, and by various protesters supporting or opposing the Vietnam War.[68] Almost from the start of its stewardship, the Park Service sought to move the bell from Independence Hall to a structure where it would be easier to care for the bell and accommodate visitors. The first such proposal was withdrawn in 1958, after considerable public protest. [69] The Park Service tried again as part of the planning for the United States Bicentennial. The Independence National Historical Park Advisory Committee proposed in 1969 that the bell be moved out of Independence Hall, as the building could not accommodate the millions expected to visit Philadelphia for the Bicentennial.[70] In 1972, the Park Service announced plans to build a large glass tower for the bell at South Third Street and Chestnut Street, two blocks east of Independence Hall, at a cost of $5 million, but citizens again protested the move. Instead, in 1973, the Park Service proposed to build a smaller glass pavilion for the bell at the north end of Independence Mall, between Arch and Race Streets. Philadelphia Mayor Frank Rizzo agreed with the pavilion idea, but proposed that the pavilion be built across Chestnut Street from Independence Hall, which the state feared would destroy the view of the historic building from the mall area.[71] Rizzo's view prevailed, and the bell was moved to a glass and steel pavilion, about 100 yards (91 m) from its old home at Independence Hall as the Bicentennial year began.[72]
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Liberty Bell
103 During the Bicentennial, members of the Procrastinator's Club of America jokingly picketed the Whitechapel Bell Foundry with signs "We got a lemon" and "What about the warranty?" The foundry told the protesters that it would be glad to replace the bell—so long as it was returned in the original packaging.[10] In 1958, the foundry (then trading under the name Mears and Stainbank Foundry) had offered to recast the bell, and and was told by the Park Service that neither it nor the public wanted the crack removed.[69] The foundry was called upon, in 1976, to cast a full-size replica of the Liberty Bell, which was presented to the United States by the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, and which is now in a tower adjacent to one of the Park Service's buildings on South Third Street.[73]
In 2001, the Park Service began work on a new home for the Liberty Bell, on the same block as the pavilion, but significantly larger, allowing for exhibit space and an interpretative center. Archaeologists discovered evidence that the construction site included an area that was once the location of a structure used by George Washington, while living in Philadelphia as president, to house his slaves. The Park Service was reluctant to include exhibits commemorating the slaves at the new Liberty Bell Center, but after protests by Black activists, agreed. The new facility, which opened after the bell was installed on October 9, 2003, is adjacent to an outline of the slaves' house marked in the pavement, with interpretive signs explaining the significance of what was found. Inside, visitors pass through a number of exhibits about the bell before reaching the Liberty Bell itself. Due to security concerns following an attack on the bell by a visitor with a hammer in 2001, the bell is hung out of easy reach of visitors, who are no longer allowed to touch it, and all visitors undergo a security screening.[74] A crowd of tourists gathers around the Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, July 1951
Today, the Liberty Bell weighs 2080 pounds (940 kg). Its metal is 70% copper and 25% tin, with the remainder consisting of lead, zinc, arsenic, gold and silver. It hangs from what is believed to be its original yoke, made from American elm.[75] While the crack in the bell appears to end at the abbreviation "Philada" in the last line of the inscription, that is merely the 19th century widened crack which was filed out in the hopes of allowing the bell to continue to ring; a hairline crack, extending through the bell to the inside continues generally right and gradually moving to the top of the bell, through the word "and" in "Pass and Stow", then through the word "the" before the word "Assembly" in the second line of text, and through the letters "rty" in the word "Liberty" in the first line. The crack ends near the attachment with the yoke.[76]
Replicas and popular culture In addition to the replicas which are seen at Independence National Historical Park, early replicas of the Liberty Bell include the so-called Justice Bell or Women's Liberty Bell, commissioned in 1915 by suffragists to advocate for women's suffrage. This bell had the same legend as the Liberty Bell, with two added words, "establish justice", words taken from the Preamble to the United States Constitution. It also had the clapper chained to the bell so it could not sound, symbolizing the inability of women, lacking the vote, to influence political events. The Justice Bell toured extensively to publicize the cause. After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment (granting women the vote), the Justice Bell was brought to the front of Bicentennial dollar
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Independence Hall on August 26, 1920 to finally sound. It remained on a platform before Independence Hall for several months before city officials required that it be taken away, and today is at the Washington Memorial Chapel at Valley Forge.[77] As part of the Liberty Bell Savings Bonds drive in 1950, 55 replicas of the Liberty Bell (one each for the 48 states, the District of Columbia, and the territories) were ordered by the United States Department of the Treasury and were cast in France. The bells were to be displayed and rung on patriotic occasions.[78] Many of the bells today are sited near state capitol buildings.[78] Although Wisconsin's bell is now at its state capitol, initially it was sited on the grounds of the state's Girls Detention Center. Texas's bell is at Texas A & M University in College Station.[78] The Texas bell was presented to the university in appreciation of the service of the school's graduates.[78] The Liberty Bell appeared on a commemorative coin in 1926 to mark the sesquicentennial of American independence.[79] Its first use on a circulating coin was on the reverse side of the Franklin half dollar, struck between 1948 and 1963.[80] It also appeared on the Bicentennial design of the Eisenhower dollar, superimposed against the moon.[81] The first U.S. stamp showing a depiction of the Liberty Bell was issued for the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1926,[82] though this stamp actually depicts the replica bell erected at the entrance to the exposition grounds. [83] The bell appears on the forever stamp issued since 2007, which increases in face value as postal rates rise.[84]
Outline of the bell at Citizens Bank Park, fully illuminated when a Phillies player hits a home run
The name "Liberty Bell" or "Liberty Belle" is commonly used for commercial purposes, and has denoted brands and business names ranging from a life insurance company to a Montana escort service.[85] A large outline of the bell hangs over the right-field bleachers at Citizens Bank Park, home of the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team, and is illuminated whenever one of their players hits a home run.[86] This bell outline replaced one at the Phillies' former home, Veterans Stadium.[87] On April 1, 1996, Taco Bell announced via ads and press releases that it had purchased the Liberty Bell and changed its name to the Taco Liberty Bell. The bell, the ads related, would henceforth spend half the year at Taco Bell corporate headquarters in Irvine, California. Outraged calls flooded Independence National Historical Park, and Park Service officials hastily called a press conference to deny that the bell had been sold. After several hours, Taco Bell admitted that it was an April Fools Day joke. Despite the protests, company sales of tacos, enchiladas, and burritos rose by more than a half million dollars that week.[88]
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Inscription The bell's inscription is given below:
PROCLAIM LIBERTY THROUGHOUT ALL THE LAND UNTO ALL THE INHABITANTS THEREOF LEV. XXV. V X. BY ORDER OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE PROVINCE OF PENSYLVANIA FOR THE STATE HOUSE IN PHILADA PASS AND STOW PHILADA MDCCLIII[89] At the time, “Pensylvania” was an accepted alternative spelling for “Pennsylvania.” That spelling was used by Alexander Hamilton, a graduate of Columbia University, in 1787 on the signature page of the United States Constitution.[89]
See also
The Liberty Bell in the new Liberty Bell Center. The former State House (now Independence Hall) is in the background, with the Centennial Bell visible in its steeple.
• The Mercury spacecraft that astronaut Gus Grissom flew on July 21, 1961, was dubbed Liberty Bell 7. Mercury capsules were somewhat bell-shaped, and this one received a painted crack to mimic the original bell. • Margaret Buechner composed a work for chorus and orchestra, "Liberty Bell", that incorporates a 1959 recording of the actual bell made by Columbia Records. • The superhero Liberty Belle whose powers are derived from the ringing of the bell.
Bibliography • de Bolla, Peter (2008). The Fourth of July and the Founding of America. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-58567-933-1. • The Franklin Institute. (1962) Report of the Committee for the Preservation of the Liberty Bell. Philadelphia, PA: The Franklin Institute. (Report). (reprinted in The Journal of the Franklin Institute, Volume 275, Number 2, February 1963), obtained from Independence National Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St., Philadelphia PA 19106) • Hanson, Victor F.; Carlson, Janice H.; Papauchado, Karen .. (1975) Analysis of the Liberty Bell: Analytical Laboratory Report #379. Winterthur, DE: Winterthur Museum. (Report). (obtained from Independence National Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St., Philadelphia PA 19106) • Hudgeons Jr., Tom (2009). The Official Blackbook Price Guides to United States Coins 2010 [90] (48th ed.). New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 0375723188. • Kimball, David (2006). The Story of the Liberty Bell (revised ed.). Washington, DC: Eastern National (National Park Service). ISBN 0915992434. • Nash, Gary B. (2010). The Liberty Bell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300139365. • Paige, John C. (1988) The Liberty Bell: A Special History Study. Denver, CO: National Park Service (Denver Service Center and Independence National Historical Park). (Report). (obtained from Independence National Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St., Philadelphia PA 19106)
Liberty Bell
External links • Liberty Bell Center [1]. Independence National Historical Park. National Park Service official website • The Liberty Bell: From Obscurity to Icon, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan [91]. National Park Service official website • Liberty Bell Center, National Park Service [92]. Bohlin Cywinski Jackson (architects) website. Retrieved 2010–03–16.
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
http:/ / www. nps. gov/ inde/ liberty-bell-center. htm Nash, pp. 1–2 Paige, pp. 2–3 The Franklin Institute, p. 19 One hundred fifty pounds, thirteen shillings and eightpence. Purchasing power of British Pounds from 1264 to present (http:/ / www. measuringworth. com/ ppoweruk/ result. php?use[]=CPI& use[]=NOMINALEARN& year_early=1752& pound71=150& shilling71=13& pence71=8& amount=150. 68333333333334& year_source=1752& year_result=2008). measuringworth.com. . Retrieved 2010–08–26. The same site indicates that the pound sterling was worth $1.85 in 2008. [7] Kimball, p. 20 [8] Nash, p. 7 [9] Pierce, James Wilson (1893). Photographic History of the World's fair and Sketch of the City of Chicago (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=guZNAAAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_atb#v=onepage& q=Liberty Bell& f=false). Baltimore: R. H. Woodward & Co. p. 491. . Retrieved 2010–08–17. [10] "The Liberty Bell" (http:/ / www. whitechapelbellfoundry. co. uk/ liberty. htm). Whitechapel Bell Foundry. . Retrieved 2010–08–09. [11] Nash, p. 7–10 [12] Nash, pp. 10–11 [13] Nash, p. 9 [14] Hanson, p. 7 [15] Hanson, p. 5 [16] Hanson, p. 4 [17] Hanson, p. 3 [18] Nash, pp. 11–12 [19] Kimball, pp. 31–32 [20] Paige, p. 13 [21] Kimball, pp. 32–33 [22] Nash, pp. 17–18 [23] Paige, p. 18 [24] Paige, pp. 17–18 [25] Nash, p. 19 [26] Kimball, p. 37 [27] Kimball, pp. 37–38 [28] Kimball, p. 38 [29] Kimball, p. 70 [30] Kimball, pp. 43–45 [31] Kimball, pp. 43–47 [32] Nash, p. 36 [33] Nash, pp. 37–38 [34] Kimball, p. 56 [35] Paige, p. 83 [36] de Bolla, p. 108 [37] Nash, p. 47 [38] Nash, pp. 50–51 [39] Kimball, p. 60 [40] Nash, pp. 48–49 [41] Hoch, Bradley R. (Summer 2004). "The Lincoln landscape: Looking for Lincoln's Philadelphia: A personal journey from Washington Square to Independence Hall" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jala/ 25. 2/ hoch. html). Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 25 (2): 59–70. . Retrieved 2010–08–10.
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Liberty Bell [42] Schwartz, Barry (2003). Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7hL8-GLkHaYC& dq=abraham+ lincoln+ liberty+ bell& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 40. ISBN 0226741982. . Retrieved 2010–08–10. [43] Nash, pp. 63–65 [44] Nash, pp. 66–68 [45] Kimball, p. 68 [46] de Bolla, p. 111 [47] Nash, p. 77 [48] Nash, pp. 79–80 [49] Nash, pp. 84–85 [50] Nash, pp. 89–90 [51] Kimball, p. 69 [52] Nash, p. 98 [53] Paige, p. 43 [54] Nash, pp. 110–112 [55] The Franklin Institute, pp. 28–29 [56] Nash, p. 113 [57] Nash, p. 123 [58] Nash, pp. 113–115 [59] Paige, p. 54 [60] Nash, p. 140 [61] Paige, p. 57 [62] Nash, pp. 148–151 [63] Paige, pp. 64–65 [64] Kimball, p. 71 [65] Nash, pp. 172–173 [66] Paige, p. 69 [67] Paige, p. 71 [68] Paige, pp. 76–78 [69] Paige, p. 72 [70] Paige, p. 78 [71] "New home sought for Liberty Bell" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F50714FB3A59137A93C6A91782D85F478785F9& scp=5& sq=liberty+ bell& st=p). The New York Times (New York): p. 15. 1973–09–04. . Retrieved 2010–08–10 (subscription required). [72] Wooten, James T. (1976–01–01). "Move of Liberty Bell opens Bicentennial" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F1091FF73B5514758DDDA80894D9405B868BF1D3& scp=1& sq=liberty+ bell+ pavilion& st=p). The New York Times (New York): p. 1. . Retrieved 2010–08–10 (subscription required). [73] Nash, pp. 177–178 [74] Yamin, Rebecca (2008). Digging in the City of Brotherly Love: Stories from Philadelphia Archeology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AL_G5WIDbqkC& pg=PA52& dq=liberty+ bell+ october+ 9+ 2003& hl=en& ei=aM5hTM_vA8H98Ab2xLjaCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=liberty bell october 9 2003& f=false). New Haven, Ct.: Yale University Press. pp. 39–53. ISBN 0300100914. . Retrieved 2010–08–09. [75] "The Liberty Bell" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ inde/ planyourvisit/ upload/ english. pdf) (pdf). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2010–08–11. [76] The Franklin Institute, p. 21 [77] Nash, pp. 114–117 [78] "Replicas of the Liberty Bell owned by U.S. state governments" (http:/ / www. libertybellmuseum. com/ exhibits/ statebells/ index. htm). Liberty Bell Museum. . Retrieved 2010–08–11. [79] Hudgeons, p. 493 [80] Hudgeons, p. 389 [81] Hudgeons, p. 413 [82] Nash, p. 126 [83] Annual Report of the Postmaster General. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1926. p. 6. [84] "Save forever on postage price increases with Forever Stamps" (http:/ / www. usps. com/ communications/ newsroom/ localnews/ co/ co_wy_mt_2008_0507. htm). United States Postal Service. 2008–05–08. . Retrieved 2010–08–11. [85] Nash, p. 184 [86] Nash, p. 183 [87] Ahuja, Jay (2001). Fields of Dreams: A Guide to Visiting and Enjoying All 30 Major League Ballparks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qQjs_j59H4sC& pg=PA62& dq=bell+ veterans+ stadium& hl=en& ei=FAFiTPGhLcOB8gb9_rWACg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=bell veterans stadium& f=false). Citadel Press. p. 62. ISBN 0806521937. .
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Retrieved 2010–08–11. [88] Nash, pp. 141–143 [89] Paige, p. 9 [90] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vH5qsRYJxgcC& dq=sesquicentennial+ half+ dollar+ bell& source=gbs_navlinks_s [91] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ NR/ twhp/ wwwlps/ lessons/ 36liberty/ 36liberty. htm [92] http:/ / www. bcj. com/ public/ projects/ project/ 44. html
Parallax Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines.[1] [2] The term is derived from the Greek παράλλαξις (parallaxis), meaning "alteration". Nearby objects have a larger parallax than more distant objects when observed from different positions, so parallax can be used to determine distances. Astronomers use the principle of parallax to measure distances to objects (typically stars) beyond the Solar System. The Hipparcos satellite has taken these measurements for over 100,000 nearby stars. This provides the basis for all other distance measurements in astronomy, the cosmic distance ladder. Here, the term "parallax" is the angle or semi-angle of inclination between two sightlines to the star. Parallax also affects optical instruments such as binoculars, microscopes, and twin-lens reflex cameras that view objects from slightly different angles. Many animals, including humans, have two eyes with overlapping visual fields to use parallax to gain depth perception; this process is known as stereopsis.
A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant background due to a perspective shift. When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B", the object appears to have moved in front of the red square.
This animation is an example of parallax. As the viewpoint moves side to side, the objects in the distance appear to move more slowly than the objects close to the camera.
A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles that use a "needle" type speedometer gauge (when the needle is mounted in front of its dial scale in a way that leaves a noticeable spacing between them). When viewed from directly in front, the speed may show 60 (i.e. the needle appears against the '60' mark on the dial behind); but when viewed from the passenger seat (i.e. from an oblique angle) the needle can appear against a slightly lower or higher mark (depending on whether it is viewed from the left or from the right), because of the combined effect of the spacing and the angle of view.
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Distance measurement in astronomy Stellar parallax On an interstellar scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the Earth causes nearby stars to appear to move relative to more distant stars. By observing parallax, measuring angles and using geometry, one can determine the distance to various objects. When the object in question is a star, the effect is known as stellar parallax. Stellar parallax is most often measured using annual parallax, defined as the difference in position of a star as seen from the Earth and Sun, i. e. the angle subtended at a star by the mean radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The parsec (3.26 light-years) is defined as the distance for which the annual parallax is 1 arcsecond. Annual parallax is normally measured by observing the position of a star at different times of the year as the Earth moves through its orbit. Measurement of annual parallax was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest stars. The first successful measurements of stellar parallax were made by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygni using a heliometer.[3] Stellar parallax remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. Accurate calculations of distance based on stellar parallax require a measurement of the distance from the Earth to the Sun, now based on radar reflection off the surfaces of planets.[4] The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus difficult to measure. The nearest star to the Sun (and thus the star with the largest parallax), Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.7687 ± 0.0003 arcsec.[5] This angle is approximately that subtended by an object 2 centimeters in diameter located 5.3 kilometers away.
This image demonstrates parallax. The Sun is visible above the streetlight. The reflection in the water shows a virtual image of the Sun and the streetlight. The location of the virtual image is below the surface of the water and thus simultaneously offers a different vantage point of the streetlight, which appears to be shifted relative to the stationary, background Sun.
The fact that stellar parallax was so small that it was unobservable at the time was used as the main scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho's principal objections to Copernican heliocentrism that in order for it to be compatible with the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn and the eighth sphere (the fixed stars).[6]
In 1989, the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining parallaxes and proper motions of nearby stars, increasing the reach of the method tenfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little more than one percent of the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy. The European Space Agency's Gaia mission, due to launch in 2012 and come online in 2013, will be able to measure parallax angles to an accuracy of 10 microarcseconds, thus mapping nearby stars (and potentially planets) up to a distance of tens of thousands of light-years from earth.[7]
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Computation Distance measurement by parallax is a special case of the principle of triangulation, which states that one can solve for all the sides and angles in a network of triangles if, in addition to all the angles in the network, the length of at least one side has been measured. Thus, the careful measurement of the length of one baseline can fix the scale of an entire triangulation network. In parallax, the triangle is extremely long and narrow, and by measuring both its shortest side (the motion of the observer) and the small top angle (always less than 1 arcsecond,[3] leaving the other two close to 90 degrees), the length of the long sides (in practice considered to be equal) can be determined.
Stellar parallax motion
Assuming the angle is small (see derivation below), the distance to an object (measured in parsecs) is the reciprocal of the parallax (measured in arcseconds): For example, the distance to Proxima Centauri is 1/0.7687=1.3009 parsecs (4.243 ly).[5]
Diurnal parallax Diurnal parallax is a parallax that varies with rotation of the Earth or with difference of location on the Earth. The Moon and to a smaller extent the terrestrial planets or asteroids seen from different viewing positions on the Earth (at one given moment) can appear differently placed against the background of fixed stars.[8] [9]
Lunar parallax Lunar parallax (often short for lunar horizontal parallax or lunar equatorial horizontal parallax), is a special case of (diurnal) parallax: the Moon, being the nearest celestial body, has by far the largest maximum parallax of any celestial body, it can exceed 1 degree.[10] The diagram (above) for stellar parallax can illustrate lunar parallax as well, if the diagram is taken to be scaled right down and slightly modified. Instead of 'near star', read 'Moon', and instead of taking the circle at the bottom of the diagram to represent the size of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, take it to be the size of the Earth's globe, and of a circle around the Earth's surface. Then, the lunar (horizontal) parallax amounts to the difference in angular position, relative to the background of distant stars, of the Moon as seen from two different viewing positions on the Earth:one of the viewing positions is the place from which the Moon can be seen directly overhead at a given moment (that is, viewed along the vertical line in the diagram); and the other viewing position is a place from which the Moon can be seen on the horizon at the same moment (that is, viewed along one of the diagonal lines, from an Earth-surface
Parallax position corresponding roughly to one of the blue dots on the modified diagram). The lunar (horizontal) parallax can alternatively be defined as the angle subtended at the distance of the Moon by the radius of the Earth[11] -- equal to angle p in the diagram when scaled-down and modified as mentioned above. The lunar horizontal parallax at any time depends on the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth. The Earth-Moon linear distance varies continuously as the Moon follows its perturbed and approximately elliptical orbit around the Earth. The range of the variation in linear distance is from about 56 to 63.7 earth-radii, corresponding to horizontal parallax of about a degree of arc, but ranging from about 61.4' to about 54'.[10] The Astronomical Almanac and similar publications tabulate the lunar horizontal parallax and/or the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth on a periodical e.g. daily basis for the convenience of astronomers (and formerly, of navigators), and the study of the way in which this coordinate varies with time forms part of lunar theory. Parallax can also be used to determine the distance to the Moon. One way to determine the lunar parallax from one location is by using a lunar eclipse. A full shadow of the Earth on the Moon has an apparent radius of curvature equal to the difference between the apparent radii of the Earth and the Sun as seen from the Moon. This radius can be seen to be equal to 0.75 degree, from which (with the solar apparent radius 0.25 degree) we get an Earth apparent radius of 1 degree. This yields for the Earth-Moon distance 60 Earth radii or 384,000 km. This procedure was first used by Aristarchus of Samos[12] and Hipparchus, and later found its way into the work of Ptolemy. The diagram at right shows how daily lunar parallax arises on the geocentric and geostatic planetary model in which the Earth is at the centre of the planetary system and does not rotate. It also illustrates the important point that parallax Diagram of daily lunar parallax need not be caused by any motion of the observer, contrary to some definitions of parallax that say it is, but may arise purely from motion of the observed. Another method is to take two pictures of the Moon at exactly the same time from two locations on Earth and compare the positions of the Moon relative to the stars. Using the orientation of the Earth, those two position measurements, and the distance between the two locations on the Earth, the distance to the Moon can be triangulated:
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This is the method referred to by Jules Verne in From the Earth to the Moon: Until then, many people had no idea how one could calculate the distance separating the Moon from the Earth. The circumstance was exploited to teach them that this distance was obtained by measuring the parallax of the Moon. If the word parallax appeared to amaze them, they were told that it was the angle subtended by two straight lines running from both ends of the Earth's radius to the Moon. If they had doubts on the perfection of this method, they were immediately shown that not only did this mean Example of lunar parallax: Occultation of Pleiades by the Moon distance amount to a whole two hundred thirty-four thousand three hundred and forty-seven miles (94,330 leagues), but also that the astronomers were not in error by more than seventy miles (≈ 30 leagues).
Solar parallax After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to build a model of the whole solar system without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one distance within the solar system, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit, or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the solar parallax, the difference in position of the Sun as seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age[13] of the visible Universe. A primitive way to determine the distance to the Sun in terms of the distance to the Moon was already proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in his book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon. He noted that the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a right triangle (right angle at the Moon) at the moment of first or last quarter moon. He then estimated that the Moon, Earth, Sun angle was 87°. Using correct geometry but inaccurate observational data, Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was slightly less than 20 times farther away than the Moon. The true value of this angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually about 390 times farther away.[12] He pointed out that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances from Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun was around 20 times larger than the Moon; this conclusion, although incorrect, follows logically from his incorrect data. It does suggest that the Sun is clearly larger than the Earth, which could be taken to support the heliocentric model. Although Aristarchus' results were incorrect due to observational errors, they were based on correct geometric principles of parallax, and became the basis for estimates of the size of the solar system for almost 2000 years, until the transit of Venus was correctly observed in 1761 and 1769.[12] This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716, although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers.
Measuring Venus transit times to determine solar parallax
Much later, the Solar System was 'scaled' using the parallax of asteroids, some of which, like Eros, pass much closer to Earth than Venus. In a favourable opposition, Eros can approach the Earth to within 22 million kilometres.[14] Both the opposition of 1901 and that of 1930/1931 were used for this purpose, the calculations of the latter
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determination being completed by Astronomer Royal Sir Harold Spencer Jones.[15] Also radar reflections, both off Venus (1958) and off asteroids, like Icarus, have been used for solar parallax determination. Today, use of spacecraft telemetry links has solved this old problem. The currently accepted value of solar parallax is 8".794 143.[16]
Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax The open stellar cluster Hyades in Taurus extends over such a large part of the sky, 20 degrees, that the proper motions as derived from astrometry appear to converge with some precision to a perspective point north of Orion. Combining the observed apparent (angular) proper motion in seconds of arc with the also observed true (absolute) receding motion as witnessed by the Doppler redshift of the stellar spectral lines, allows estimation of the distance to the cluster (151 light-years) and its member stars in much the same way as using annual parallax.[17] Dynamic parallax has sometimes also been used to determine the distance to a supernova, when the optical wave front of the outburst is seen to propagate through the surrounding dust clouds at an apparent angular velocity, while its true propagation velocity is known to be the speed of light.[18]
Derivation For a right triangle,
where
is the parallax, 1 AU (149600000 km) is approximately the average distance from the Sun to Earth, and
is the distance to the star. Using small-angle approximations (valid when the angle is small compared to 1 radian),
so the parallax, measured in arcseconds, is
If the parallax is 1", then the distance is
This defines the parsec, a convenient unit for measuring distance using parallax. Therefore, the distance, measured in parsecs, is simply , when the parallax is given in arcseconds.[19]
Parallax error Precise parallax measurements of distance have an associated error. However this error in the measured parallax angle does not translate directly into an error for the distance, except for relatively small errors. The reason for this is that an error toward a smaller angle results in a greater error in distance than an error toward a larger angle. However, an approximation of the distance error can be computed by
where d is the distance and p is the parallax. The approximation is far more accurate for parallax errors that are small relative to the parallax than for relatively large errors.
Parallax
Visual perception As the eyes of humans and other animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects.[20] Animals also use motion parallax, in which the animal (or just the head) moves to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see depth.[21]
Parallax and measurement instruments If an optical instrument — e.g., a telescope, microscope, or theodolite — is imprecisely focused, its cross-hairs will appear to move with respect to the object focused on if one moves one's head horizontally in front of the eyepiece. This is why it is important, especially when performing measurements, to focus carefully in order to eliminate the parallax, and to check by moving one's head. Also, in non-optical measurements the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements. To avoid parallax error, one should take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler so that the thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements. A similar error can occur when reading the position of a pointer against a scale in an instrument such as a galvanometer (for example, in an analog-display multimeter.) To help the user avoid this problem, the scale is sometimes printed above a narrow strip of mirror, and the user positions his eye so that the pointer obscures its own reflection. This guarantees that the user's line of sight is perpendicular to the mirror and therefore to the scale. Parallax can cause a speedometer reading to appear different to a car's passenger than to the driver.
Photogrammetric parallax Aerial picture pairs, when viewed through a stereo viewer, offer a pronounced stereo effect of landscape and buildings. High buildings appear to 'keel over' in the direction away from the centre of the photograph. Measurements of this parallax are used to deduce the height of the buildings, provided that flying height and baseline distances are known. This is a key component to the process of photogrammetry.
Parallax error in photography Parallax error can be seen when taking photos with many types of cameras, such as twin-lens reflex cameras and those including viewfinders (such as rangefinder cameras). In such cameras, the eye sees the subject through different optics (the viewfinder, or a second lens) than the one through which the photo is taken. As the viewfinder is often found above the lens of the camera, photos with parallax error are often slightly lower than intended, the classic example being the image of person with his or her head cropped off. This problem is addressed in single-lens reflex cameras, in which the viewfinder sees through the same lens through which the photo is taken (with the aid of a movable mirror), thus avoiding parallax error. Parallax is also an issue in image stitching, such as for panoramas.
In computer graphics In many early graphical applications, such as video games, the scene was constructed of independent layers that were scrolled at different speeds when the player/cursor moved. Some hardware had explicit support for such layers, such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. This gave some layers the appearance of being farther away than others and was useful for creating an illusion of depth, but only worked when the player was moving. Now, most games are based on much more comprehensive three-dimensional graphic models, although portable game systems
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Parallax (such as Nintendo DS) still often use parallax. Parallax-based graphics continue to be used for many online applications where the bandwidth required by three-dimensional graphics is excessive.
In gunfire Owing to the positioning of gun turrets on a warship or in the field, each one has a slightly different perspective of the target relative to the location of the fire control system itself. Therefore, when aiming its guns at the target, the fire control system must compensate for parallax in order to assure that fire from each turret converges on the target. This is also true of small arms, as the distance between the sighting mechanism and the weapon's bore can introduce significant errors when firing at close range, particularly when firing at small targets. This also applies to archery where the shooter frequently relies on a single pin at close range.
As a metaphor In a philosophic/geometric sense: An apparent change in the direction of an object, caused by a change in observational position that provides a new line of sight. The apparent displacement, or difference of position, of an object, as seen from two different stations, or points of view. In contemporary writing parallax can also be the same story, or a similar story from approximately the same time line, from one book told from a different perspective in another book. The word and concept feature prominently in James Joyce's 1922 novel, Ulysses. Orson Scott Card also used the term when referring to Ender's Shadow as compared to Ender's Game. The metaphor is invoked by Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek in his work The Parallax View. Žižek borrowed the concept of "parallax view" from the Japanese philosopher and literary critic Kojin Karatani. "The philosophical twist to be added (to parallax), of course, is that the observed distance is not simply subjective, since the same object that exists 'out there' is seen from two different stances, or points of view. It is rather that, as Hegel would have put it, subject and object are inherently mediated so that an 'epistemological' shift in the subject's point of view always reflects an ontological shift in the object itself. Or—to put it in Lacanese—the subject's gaze is always-already inscribed into the perceived object itself, in the guise of its 'blind spot,' that which is 'in the object more than object itself', the point from which the object itself returns the gaze. Sure the picture is in my eye, but I am also in the picture."[22]
References • Hirshfeld, Alan w. (2001). Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0716737116 • Whipple, Fred L. (2007). Earth Moon and Planets. Read Books. ISBN 1406764132. • Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephan A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0030062284.
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Parallax
See also • • • • • •
Triangulation, wherein a point is calculated given its angles from other known points Trilateration, wherein a point is calculated given its distances from other known points Disparity Spectroscopic parallax Trigonometry Xallarap
External links • • • • •
Instructions for having background images on a web page use parallax effects [23] Actual parallax project measuring the distance to the moon within 2.3% [24] BBC's Sky at Night [25] programme: Patrick Moore demonstrates Parallax using Cricket. (Requires RealPlayer) Berkely Center for Cosmological Physics Parallax [26] Parallax [27] on an educational website, including a quick estimate of distance based on parallax using eyes and a thumb only
References [1] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1968. "Mutual inclination of two lines meeting in an angle". [2] "Parallax" (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 50171114?single=1& query_type=word& queryword=parallax& first=1& max_to_show=10). Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition ed.). 1989. . "Astron. Apparent displacement, or difference in the apparent position, of an object, caused by actual change (or difference) of position of the point of observation; spec. the angular amount of such displacement or difference of position, being the angle contained between the two straight lines drawn to the object from the two different points of view, and constituting a measure of the distance of the object.". [3] Zeilik & Gregory 1998, p. 44. [4] Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 22-3. [5] Benedict, G. Fritz et al. (1999). "Interferometric Astrometry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE Fine Guidance Sensor 3: Detection Limits for Substellar Companions" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1999astro. ph. . 5318B). The Astronomical Journal 118 (2): 1086–1100. doi:10.1086/300975. . Retrieved 2010-02-17. [6] See p.51 in The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science, Torun, Poland, 1973, ed. Jerzy Dobrzycki, International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science. Nicolas Copernicus Committee; ISBN 9027703116, ISBN 9789027703118 [7] Henney, Paul J.. "ESA's Gaia Mission to study stars" (http:/ / www. astronomytoday. com/ exploration/ gaia. html). Astronomy Today. . Retrieved 2008-03-08. [8] Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2005). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books. pp. 123–125. ISBN 1891389459. [9] Barbieri, Cesare (2007). Fundamentals of astronomy. CRC Press. pp. 132–135. ISBN 0750308869. [10] Astronomical Almanac e.g. for 1981, section D [11] Astronomical Almanac, e.g. for 1981: see Glossary; for formulae see Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 1992, p.400 [12] Gutzwiller, Martin C. (1998). "Moon-Earth-Sun: The oldest three-body problem". Reviews of Modern Physics 70: 589. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.70.589. [13] Freedman, W.L. (2000). "The Hubble constant and the expansion age of the Universe" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2000PhR. . . 333. . . 13F). Physics Reports 333: 13. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(00)00013-2. arXiv:astro-ph/9909076. . [14] Whipple 2007, p. 47. [15] Whipple 2007, p. 117. [16] US Naval Observatory, Astronomical Constants (http:/ / asa. usno. navy. mil/ SecK/ 2010/ Astronomical_Constants_2010. pdf) [17] Vijay K. Narayanan; Andrew Gould (1999). "A Precision Test of Hipparcos Systematics toward the Hyades". The Astrophysical Journal 515: 256. doi:10.1086/307021. arXiv:astro-ph/9808284. [18] Panagia, N.; Gilmozzi, R.; MacChetto, F.; Adorf, H.-M.; Kirshner, R. P. (1991). "Properties of the SN 1987A circumstellar ring and the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astrophysical Journal 380: L23. doi:10.1086/186164. [19] Similar derivations are in most astronomy textbooks. See, e. g., Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 11-1. [20] Steinman, Scott B.; Garzia, Ralph Philip (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 2–5. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5 [21] Steinman & Garzia 2000, p. 180.
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Parallax [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]
117 Žižek, Slavoj (2006). The Parallax View. The MIT Press. pp. 17. ISBN 0262240513. http:/ / inner. geek. nz/ javascript/ parallax/ http:/ / www. perseus. gr/ Astro-Lunar-Parallax. htm http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ space/ realmedia/ skymedia_justnotcricket. ram http:/ / bccp. lbl. gov/ Academy/ pdfs/ Parallax. pdf http:/ / www. phy6. org/ stargaze/ Sparalax. htm
Gold
118
Gold Gold Appearance metallic yellow
General properties Name, symbol, number
gold, Au, 79
Pronunciation
English pronunciation: /ˈɡoʊld/
Element category
transition metal
Group, period, block
11, 6, d
Standard atomic weight
196.966569(4) g·mol
Electron configuration
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 (Image)
14
10
−1
1
Physical properties Phase
solid
Density (near r.t.)
19.30 g·cm
Liquid density at m.p.
17.31 g·cm
Melting point
1337.33 K,1064.18 °C,1947.52 °F
Boiling point
3129 K,2856 °C,5173 °F
Heat of fusion
12.55 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization
324 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity
(25 °C) 25.418 J·mol−1·K−1
−3 −3
Vapor pressure P/Pa
1
10
100
1k
10 k
100 k
at T/K
1646
1814
2021
2281
2620
3078
Atomic properties Oxidation states
-1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity
2.54 (Pauling scale)
Gold
119 Ionization energies
1st: 890.1 kJ·mol−1 2nd: 1980 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius
144 pm
Covalent radius
136±6 pm
Van der Waals radius
166 pm Miscellanea
Crystal structure
Lattice face centered cubic
Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity
(20 °C) 22.14 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity
(300 K) 318 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion
(25 °C) 14.2 µm·m ·K
−1
−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 2030 m·s−1 Tensile strength
120 MPa
Young's modulus
79 GPa
Shear modulus
27 GPa
Bulk modulus
180 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.44
Mohs hardness
2.5
Vickers hardness
216 MPa
Brinell hardness
25 HB MPa
CAS registry number
7440-57-5
Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of gold iso
NA
half-life
DM
DE (MeV)
195
syn
186.10 d
ε
0.227
195
196
syn
6.183 d
ε
1.506
196
β−
0.686
196
Au Au
Au 100%
197
DP
Pt Pt
Hg
197
Au is stable with 118 neutron
198
syn
2.69517 d
β−
1.372
198
199
syn
3.169 d
β−
0.453
199
Au Au
Hg Hg
Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin: aurum, "shining dawn", hence adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water.
Gold
120 Gold is one of the coinage metals and has served as a symbol of wealth and a store of value throughout history. Gold standards have provided a basis for monetary policies. It also has been linked to a variety of symbolisms and ideologies. A total of 165,000 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, as of 2009.[1] This is roughly equivalent to 5.3 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 8,500 cubic meters, or a 20.4m cube. Although primarily used as a store of value, gold has many modern industrial uses including dentistry and electronics. Gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion and excellent quality as a conductor of electricity. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations in solutions. Compared with other metals, pure gold is chemically least reactive, but it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming chloroauric acid, but not by the individual acids, and by alkaline solutions of cyanide. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which dissolves silver and base metals. This property is exploited in the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard test for genuine value.
Characteristics Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because gold strongly reflects yellow and red.[2] Such semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant heat) shields in visors of heat-resistant suits, and in sun-visors for spacesuits.[3]
Native gold nuggets
Gold readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors (see below).[4] Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infrared radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by air, moisture and most corrosive reagents, and is therefore well suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert. Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as gold metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate. High quality pure metallic gold is tasteless and scentless; in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals).[5]
Gold nuggets found in Arizona
In addition, gold is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19,300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is 11,340 kg/m3, and that of the densest element, osmium, is 22,610 kg/m3.
Gold
121
Color Whereas most other pure metals are gray or silvery white, gold is yellow. This color is determined by the density of loosely bound (valence) electrons; those electrons oscillate as a collective "plasma" medium described in terms of a quasiparticle called plasmon. The frequency of these oscillations lies in the ultraviolet range for most metals, but it falls into the visible range for gold due to subtle relativistic effects that affect the orbitals around gold atoms.[6] [7] Similar effects impart a golden hue to metallic cesium (see relativistic quantum chemistry). Common colored gold alloys such as rose gold can be created by the addition of various amounts of copper and silver, as Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys indicated in the triangular diagram to the left. Alloys containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white gold alloys. Less commonly, addition of manganese, aluminium, iron, indium and other elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various applications.[4]
Isotopes Gold has only one stable isotope, 197Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope. Thirty six radioisotopes have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. 195Au is also the only gold isotope to decay by electron capture. The least stable is 171Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The exceptions are 195Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196Au, which has a minor β- decay path. All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by β- decay.[8] At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range, only 178Au, 180Au, 181Au, 182Au, and 188Au do not have isomers. Gold's most stable isomer is 198 m2Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer is 177 m2Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1Au has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths.[8]
Gold
122
Use and applications Monetary exchange Gold has been widely used throughout the world as a vehicle for monetary exchange, either by issuance and recognition of gold coins or other bare metal quantities, or through gold-convertible paper instruments by establishing gold standards in which the total value of issued money is represented in a store of gold reserves. However, the amount of gold in the world is finite and production has not grown in relation to the world's economies. Today, gold mining output is declining.[9] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold were no longer sustained. At the beginning of World War I the warring nations moved to a fractional gold standard, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort. After World War II gold was replaced by a system of convertible currency following the Bretton Woods system. Gold standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, being replaced by fiat currency in their stead. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; it backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999.[10] Pure gold is too soft for day-to-day monetary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper, silver or other base metals. The gold content of alloys is measured in carats (k). Pure gold is designated as 24k. Gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold, for hardness.
Investment Many holders of gold store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions. However, some economists do not believe gold serves as a hedge against inflation or currency depreciation.[11] The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU. Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine gold at 24k, although the American Gold Eagle, the British gold sovereign, and the South African Krugerrand continue to be minted in 22k metal in historical tradition. The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure gold coins are available. In 2006, the United States Mint began production of the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%. The Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget but changed the reverse design in 1989. Other popular modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese Gold Panda.
Gold
123
Jewelry Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color. Eighteen-carat gold containing 25% copper is found in antique and Russian jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating rose gold. Fourteen-carat gold-copper alloy is nearly identical Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police, as well as other, badges. Blue gold can be made by alloying with iron and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium, although rarely done except in specialized jewelry. Blue gold is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat gold alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. White gold alloys can be made with palladium or nickel. White 18-carat gold containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper is silvery in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white gold alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals,[12] but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white gold alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.
Medicine In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.[13] Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions.[14] However, only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern times, injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis.[14] [15] Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others. Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells.[16] In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen.[17] Colloidal gold is also the form of gold used as gold paint on ceramics prior to firing. Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Gold's very high
Gold
124 electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.[18] The isotope gold-198, (half-life 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.[19]
Food and drink • Gold can be used in food and has the E number 175.[20] • Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient.[21] Gold flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one's health. Gold foil along with silver is sometimes used in South Asian sweets such as barfi.[22] • Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig) or Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a traditional German herbal liqueur[23] produced in what is today Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf.[24] However, since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other nutritional effect and leaves the body unaltered.[25]
Industry • Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, gold solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to color match yellow and white gold. Gold solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.
The 220 kg gold brick displayed in Chinkuashi Gold Museum, Taiwan, Republic of China
• Gold can be made into thread and used in embroidery. • Gold is ductile and malleable, meaning it can be drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very thin sheets known as gold leaf. • Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass. • In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black and white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, gold toners produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for several types of gold toners, which use gold as the chloride.[26] • As gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as radio waves, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts' helmets and in electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler.
Gold
125 • Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs. • Automobiles may use gold for heat dissipation. McLaren uses gold foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model.[27] • Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears transparent. It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it. The heat produced by the resistance of the gold is enough to deter ice from forming.[28]
Electronics The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.90×1022 cm−3. Gold is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, gold electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
The world's largest gold bar weighs 250 kg. Toi museum, Japan.
Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these applications is highly debated. Gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common.[29] A gold nugget of 5 mm in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a gold foil Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical of about 0.5 square meter. Toi museum, Japan. contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[30] Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding.
Chemistry Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and gold cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals and electroforming. Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal gold by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to make highly valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal gold suspensions, contains evenly sized spherical gold nanoparticles.[31]
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History Gold has been known and used by artisans since the Chalcolithic. Gold artifacts in the Balkans appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as that found in the Varna Necropolis. Gold artifacts such as the golden hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age. Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe gold, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt.[32] Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history. The earliest known map is known as the Turin Papyrus Map and shows the plan of a gold mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology. The primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, and included fire-setting. Large mines were also present across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia. The legend of the golden fleece may refer to the use of fleeces to trap gold dust from placer deposits in the ancient world. Gold is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament, starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah) and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament. The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having streets "made of pure gold, clear as crystal". The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC.[33] From the 6th or 5th century BC, the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold coin. In Roman metallurgy, new methods for extracting gold on a large scale were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods, especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 150 AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain), where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well described by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first century AD.
The Turin Papyrus Map
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Jason returns with the golden fleece on an Apulian red-figure calyx krater, ca. 340–330 BC.
The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world for its large amounts of gold. Mansa Musa, ruler of the empire (1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he passed through Cairo in July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. He gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade.[34] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:
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127 Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...]
“
”
[35] —Chihab Al-Umari
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The Aztecs regarded gold as literally the product of the gods, calling it "god excrement" (teocuitlatl in Nahuatl).[36] Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party. There is an age-old tradition of biting gold to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining gold, the bite test should score the gold because gold is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than gold (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting). Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since 1910.[37] It has been estimated that all gold ever refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (equivalent to 8000 m3).[37] One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's chemistry. Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun. For modern creation of artificial gold by neutron capture, see gold synthesis. During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of gold in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803.[38] The first major gold strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.[39] Further gold rushes occurred in California, Colorado, the Black Hills, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, and the Klondike. Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
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Occurrence Gold's atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number elements which occur naturally. Like all elements with atomic numbers larger than iron, gold is thought to have been formed from a supernova nucleosynthesis process. Their explosions scattered metal-containing dusts (including heavy elements like gold) into the region of space in which they later condensed into our solar system and the Earth.[40] On Earth, whenever elemental gold occurs, it appears most often as a metal solid solution of gold with silver, i.e. a gold silver alloy. Such alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental gold with more than 20% silver. Electrum's color runs from golden-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content. The more silver, the lower the specific gravity.
Gold is found in ores made up of rock with very small or microscopic particles of gold. This gold ore is often found together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as Fool's Gold, which is a pyrite.[41] These are called lode deposits. Native gold is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits (called placer deposits). Such free gold is always richer at the surface of gold-bearing veins owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering, and washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to form nuggets. Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite, krennerite, nagyagite, petzite and sylvanite, and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au2Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb2). Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and mercury: the minerals auricupride (Cu3Au), novodneprite (AuPb3) and weishanite ((Au, Ag)3Hg2).
This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
Relative sizes of an 860 kg block of gold ore, and the 30 g of gold that can be extracted from it. Toi gold mine, Japan.
Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[42] The world's oceans contain gold. Measured concentrations of gold in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are 50–150 fmol/L or 10-30 parts Gold left behind after a pyrite cube was oxidized per quadrillion. In general, Au concentrations for Atlantic and Pacific to hematite. Note cubic shape of cavity. samples are the same (~50 fmol/L) but less certain. Mediterranean deep waters contain higher concentrations of Au (100–150 fmol/L) attributed to wind-blown dust and/or rivers. At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth's oceans would hold 15,000 tons of gold[43] . These figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating contamination problems with the earlier data. A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but so far they have all been either mistaken or crooks. A so-called reverend, Prescott Jernegan ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s.[44] Fritz Haber (the
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129 German inventor of the Haber process) did research on the extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following World War I.[45] Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of gold in seawater a commercially successful extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004 ppb it became clear that the extraction would not be possible and he stopped the project.[46] No commercially viable mechanism for performing gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Gold synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future
Gallery of specimens of crystalline native gold
"Rope gold" from Lena River, Sakha Republic, Russia. Size: 2.5×1.2×0.7 cm.
Crystalline gold from Mina Zapata, Santa Elena de Uairen, Venezuela. Size: 3.7×1.1×0.4 cm.
Gold leaf from Harvard Mine, Jamestown, California, USA. Size 9.3×3.2× >0.1 cm.
Production Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits. Ore grades as little as 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) can be economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 mg/kg (1–5 ppm); ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 mg/kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of 30 mg/kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before gold is visible to the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is invisible. Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world's gold supply, with about World gold production trend 50% of all gold ever produced having come from South Africa. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,480 tonnes. 2008 production was 2,260 tonnes. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa has not been the largest.[47]
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130 The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest gold deposits the world has ever seen. Gold fields located within the basin in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some of the world's deepest mines, with the Savuka and TauTona mines being currently the world's deepest gold mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa. Other major producers are the United States, Australia, Russia and Peru. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina. Today about one-quarter of the world gold output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining.[48]
Gold output in 2005
The entrance to an underground gold mine in Victoria, Australia
After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only applied in small-scale installations.[49] [50] Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in aqua regia.[51] At the end of 2009, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 165,000 tonnes[52] This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of about 20.28 meters. The value of this is very limited; at $1200 per ounce, 165,000 tons of gold would have a value of only 6.6 trillion dollars.
Pure gold precipitate produced by the aqua regia refining process
The average gold mining and extraction costs were about US$317/oz in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes.[53] Gold is so stable and so valuable that it is always recovered and recycled. There is no true consumption of gold in the economic sense; the stock of gold remains essentially constant while ownership shifts from one party to another.[54]
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Consumption India is the world's largest consumer of gold, as Indians buy about 25% of the world's gold,[55] purchasing approximately 800 tonnes of gold every year. India is also the largest importer of the yellow metal; in 2008, India imported around 400 tonnes of gold.[56]
Chemistry Although gold is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of gold in its compounds ranges from −1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate its chemistry. Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN)2−, which is the soluble form of gold encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary gold halides, such as AuCl, form zigzag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on gold are Au(I) derivatives.[57] Au(III) (auric) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, AuCl3. Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar. Aqua regia, a 1:3 mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, dissolves gold. Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3 ions, but only in minute amounts, typically undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. However, the ions are removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming AuCl4− ions, or chloroauric acid, thereby enabling further oxidation. Some free halogens react with gold.[58] Gold also reacts in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide. With mercury, it forms an amalgam.
Less common oxidation states Less common oxidation states of gold include −1, +2, and +5. The −1 oxidation state occurs in compounds containing the Au− anion, called aurides. Caesium auride (CsAu), for example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif.[59] Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+.[60] Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. The evaporation of a solution of Au(OH)3 in concentrated H2SO4 produces red crystals of gold(II) sulfate, AuSO4. Originally thought to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain Au4+2 cations.[61] [62] A noteworthy, legitimate gold(II) complex is the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, found in [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2.[63] Gold pentafluoride and its derivative anion, AuF−6, is the sole example of gold(V), the highest verified oxidation state.[64] Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.
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Mixed valence compounds Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[60] In such cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+. Gold chalcogenides, such as gold sulfide, feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Toxicity Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested[65] and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of gold leaf. Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in the Codex Alimentarius). Although gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body. Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of gold such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic both by virtue of their cyanide and gold content. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide.[66] [67] Gold toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as Dimercaprol. Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. Gold contact allergies affect mostly women.[68] Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel.[69]
Price Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a gold bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being very pure. The price of gold is determined through trading in the gold and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark price to the industry. The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are open.
Gold price per troy ounce in USD since 1960, in nominal US$ and inflation adjusted in 2009 US$.
Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In an economic system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.
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Swiss-cast 1 kg gold bar
On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the gold ever mined, as does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.
In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[70] Since 1968 the price of gold has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[71] The period from 1999 to 2001 marked the "Brown Bottom" after a 20-year bear market.[72] Prices increased rapidly from 1991, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until January 3, 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set (a.m. London Gold Fixing).[73] Another record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz ($32,900/kg)(am. London Gold Fixing).[73] In the fall of 2009, gold markets experienced renewed momentum upwards due to increased demand and a weakening US dollar. On December 2, 2009, Gold passed the important barrier of US$1200 per ounce to close at $1215.[74] Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May of 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of gold as a safe asset.[75] [76] Since April 2001 the gold price has more than tripled in value against the US dollar,[77] prompting speculation that this long secular bear market has ended and a bull market has returned.[78]
Symbolism Gold has been highly valued in many societies throughout the ages. In keeping with this it has often had a strongly positive symbolic meaning closely connected to the values held in the highest esteem in the society in question. Gold may symbolize power, strength, wealth, warmth, happiness, love, hope, optimism, intelligence, justice, balance, perfection, summer, harvest and the sun. Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of gold medals, golden trophies and other decorations. Winners of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a Gold bars at the Emperor Casino in Macau gold medal (e.g., the Olympic Games). Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made from gold as well. Other award statues and prizes are depicted in gold or are gold plated (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards). Aristotle in his ethics used gold symbolism when referring to what is now commonly known as the "golden mean". Similarly, gold is associated with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of Phi, which is sometimes called the "golden ratio". Gold represents great value. Respected people are treated with the most valued rule, the "golden rule". A company may give its most valued customers "gold cards" or make them "gold members". We value moments of peace and therefore we say: "silence is golden". In Greek mythology there was the "golden fleece".
Gold
134 Gold is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition. The fiftieth wedding anniversary is golden. Our precious latter years are sometimes considered "golden years". The height of a civilization is referred to as a "golden age". In Christianity gold has sometimes been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and the greatest sanctity. In the Book of Exodus, the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry. In the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in gold and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure gold. In Christian art the halos of Christ, Mary and the Christian saints are golden. Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a golden crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings have long been made of gold. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and/or the sun and moon and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites. In popular culture gold holds many connotations but is most generally connected to terms such as good or great, such as in the phrases: "has a heart of gold", "that's golden!", "golden moment", "then you're golden!" and "golden boy". Gold also still holds its place as a symbol of wealth and through that, in many societies, success.
State emblem In 1965, the California Legislature designated gold "the State Mineral and mineralogical emblem."[79] In 1968, the Alaska Legislature named gold "the official state mineral."[80]
See also • • • • • • • • • • • •
Altai Mountains ChipGold Commodity fetishism (Marxist economic theory) Digital gold currency Gold Anti-Trust Action Committee Gold bubble Gold fingerprinting Gold Prospectors Association of America Mining in Roman Britain Prospecting Roman engineering Tumbaga
External links • • • • •
Getting Gold 1898 book [81], www.lateralscience.co.uk Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold [82], www.epa.gov Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok [83], www.pniok.de WebElements.com — Gold [84] n www.webelements.com Chemistry in its element podcast [85] (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Gold [86] www.rsc.org
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[7] Schmidbaur, Hubert; Cronje, Stephanie; Djordjevic, Bratislav; Schuster, Oliver (2005). "Understanding gold chemistry through relativity". Chemical Physics 311 (1–2): 151–161. doi:10.1016/j.chemphys.2004.09.023. [8] Audi, G. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. [9] King, Byron (2009-07-20). "Gold mining decline" (http:/ / goldnews. bullionvault. com/ gold_mine_production_072020092). BullionVault.com. . Retrieved 2009-11-23. [10] "Gold Backed Currency - MoneyTec.com Traders Community Forum" (http:/ / www. moneytec. com/ forums/ f33/ gold-backed-currency-14196/ ). Moneytec.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [11] Martin Feldstein (2009-12-26). "Is Gold a Good Hedge?" (http:/ / host. madison. com/ ct/ news/ opinion/ column/ article_68f99b80-4258-5f44-a817-5cc64c6e1884. html). Project Syndicate. . Retrieved 2009-12-29. [12] World Gold Council, Jewellery Technology, Jewellery Alloys (http:/ / www. utilisegold. com/ jewellery_technology/ colours/ colour_alloys/ ) [13] "The healing power of precious metals" (http:/ / health. ninemsn. com. au/ article. aspx?id=694367). . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [14] Messori, L.; Marcon, G. (2004). "Gold Complexes in the treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wgifUs8dFbgC& pg=PA279). in Sigel, Astrid. Metal ions and their complexes in medication. CRC Press. pp. 280–301. ISBN 9780824753511. . [15] "BMJ: ''login required''" (http:/ / besthealth. bmj. com/ btuk/ conditions/ 14212. html). Besthealth.bmj.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [16] Faulk, WP; Taylor, GM (1971). "An immunocolloid method for the electron microscope.". Immunochemistry 8 (11): 1081–3. doi:10.1016/0019-2791(71)90496-4. PMID 4110101. [17] Roth, J; Bendayan, M; Orci, L (1980). "FITC-protein A-gold complex for light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry." (http:/ / www. jhc. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 28/ 1/ 55. pdf). The journal of histochemistry and cytochemistry : official journal of the Histochemistry Society 28 (1): 55–7. PMID 6153194. . [18] Bozzola, John J. and Russell, Lonnie Dee (1999). Electron microscopy: principles and techniques for biologists (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RqSMzR-IXk0C& pg=PA65). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 65. ISBN 0763701920. . [19] Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Nanomedicine: Hybrid Nanoparticles In Imaging and Therapy of Prostate Cancer (http:/ / web. missouri. edu/ ~kattik/ katti/ katres. html) - Radiopharmaceutical Sciences Institute, University of Missouri-Columbia [20] "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers" (http:/ / www. food. gov. uk/ safereating/ chemsafe/ additivesbranch/ enumberlist). Food Standards Agency, UK. 27 July 2007. . [21] "The Food Dictionary: Varak" (http:/ / www. epicurious. com/ cooking/ how_to/ food_dictionary/ entry?id=5061). 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[29] Krech, Shepard; McNeill, John Robert and Merchant, Carolyn (2004). Encyclopedia of world environmental history, Volume 3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=G7JrhAy5phoC& pg=PA597). Routledge. p. 597. ISBN 0415937345. . [30] "General Electric Contact Materials" (http:/ / www. tanaka-precious. com/ catalog/ material. html). Electrical Contact Catalog (Material Catalog). Tanaka Precious Metals. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-21. [31] "Colored glass chemistry" (http:/ / chemistry. about. com/ cs/ inorganic/ a/ aa032503a. htm). . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [32] Reeves, Nicholas Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet, Thames & Hudson, p.69 ISBN 0500285527 [33] "A Case for the World's First Coin: The Lydian Lion" (http:/ / rg. ancients. info/ lion/ article. html). . Retrieved 2009-07-24. [34] Mansa Musa (http:/ / blackhistorypages. net/ pages/ mansamusa. php) - Black History Pages
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136 [35] "Kingdom of Mali - Primary Source Documents" (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ africa/ outreach/ materials/ handouts/ k_o_mali. html). African studies Center. Boston University. . Retrieved 2008-08-05. [36] Berdan, Frances; Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1992). The Codex Mendoza. 2. University of California Press. p. 151. ISBN 9780520062344. [37] "Goldsheet - yearly and cumulative world gold production charts" (http:/ / www. goldsheetlinks. com/ production2. htm). . Retrieved 2006-07-22. [38] Moore, Mark A. (2006). "Reed Gold Mine State Historic Site" (http:/ / www. nchistoricsites. org/ Reed/ reed. htm). North Carolina Office of Archives and History. . Retrieved 2008-12-13. [39] Garvey, Jane A. (2006). "Road to adventure" (http:/ / www. georgiamagazine. org/ archives_view. asp?mon=7& yr=2006& ID=1344). Georgia Magazine. . Retrieved 2007-01-23. [40] Seeger, Philip A.; Fowler, William A.; Clayton, Donald D. (1965). "Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture.". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 11: 121. doi:10.1086/190111. [41] "Formation of Lode Gold Deposits" (http:/ / arizonagoldprospectors. com/ formation. htm). arizonagoldprospectors.com. . Retrieved 2009-05-23. [42] "Environment & Nature News - Bugs grow gold that looks like coral - 28/01/2004" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ news/ enviro/ EnviroRepublish_1032376. htm). . Retrieved 2006-07-22. This is doctoral research undertaken by Frank Reith at the Australian National University, published 2004. [43] Kenison Falkner, K.; Edmond, J (1990). "Gold in seawater". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 98 (2): 208–221. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(90)90060-B. [44] Plazak, Dan A Hole in the Ground with a Liar at the Top (Salt Lake: Univ. of Utah Press, 2006) ISBN 0874808405 (contains a chapter on gold-from seawater swindles) [45] Haber, F. (1927). "Das Gold im Meerwasser". Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 40 (11): 303–314. doi:10.1002/ange.19270401103. [46] McHugh, J.B. (1988). "Concentration of gold in natural waters". Journal of Geochemical Exploration 30 (1–3): 85–94. doi:10.1016/0375-6742(88)90051-9. [47] Mandaro, Laura (2008-01-17). "China now world's largest gold producer; foreign miners at door - MarketWatch" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ news/ story/ china-now-worlds-largest-gold/ story. aspx?guid={8C528CE8-0262-485D-ACEB-2247D18282CB}). MarketWatch. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [48] Beinhoff, Christian. Removal of Barriers to the Abatement of Global Mercury Pollution from Artisanal Gold Mining (http:/ / www. unido. org/ fileadmin/ import/ 10644_CHRISTIANtext. 3. pdf). . [49] Noyes, Robert (1993). Pollution prevention technology handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=__lqGczo9TwC& pg=PA342). William Andrew. p. 342. ISBN 0815513119. . [50] Pletcher, Derek and Walsh, Frank (1990). Industrial electrochemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=E_u9ARrm37oC& pg=PA244). Springer. p. 244. ISBN 0412304104. . [51] Marczenko, Zygmunt and Balcerzak, María (2000). Separation, preconcentration, and spectrophotometry in inorganic analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0NE1KjVISyAC& pg=PA210). Elsevier. p. 210. ISBN 0444505245. . [52] World Gold Council FAQ (http:/ / www. gold. org/ faq/ answer/ 76/ how_much_gold_has_been_mined/ ) [53] O'Connell, Rhona (13 Apr 2007). "Gold mine production costs up by 17% in 2006 while output fell" (http:/ / www. mineweb. net/ mineweb/ view/ mineweb/ en/ page33?oid=19485& sn=Detail). . [54] "The Myth of the Gold Supply Deficit" (http:/ / www. lewrockwell. com/ blumen/ blumen14. html). . Retrieved 2009-03-30. [55] "India's love affair with gold tarnishing" (http:/ / www. nakedcapitalism. com/ 2008/ 03/ indias-love-affair-with-gold-tarnishing. html). March 27, 2008. . [56] "Gold: Why China outbeats India in gold reserves" (http:/ / www. commodityonline. com/ news/ Gold-Why-China-outbeats-India-in-gold-reserves-17196-3-1. html). Commodity online. 2009-04-26. . [57] Shaw III, C. F. (1999). "Gold-Based Medicinal Agents". Chemical Reviews 99 (9): 2589–2600. doi:10.1021/cr980431o. PMID 11749494. [58] Holleman , Wiberg (2001). Inorganic Chemistry (101 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 1286. ISBN 0123526515. [59] Jansen, Martin (2005). "Effects of relativistic motion of electrons on the chemistry of gold and platinum". Solid State Sciences 7 (12): 1464–1474. doi:10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2005.06.015. [60] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. [61] Wickleder, Mathias S. (2001). "AuSO4: A True Gold(II) Sulfate with an Au4+2 Ion". Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry 627: 2112–2114. doi:10.1002/1521-3749(200109)627:9<2112::AID-ZAAC2112>3.0.CO;2-2. [62] Wickleder, Mathias S. (2007). Francesco A. Devillanova. ed. Handbook of chalcogen chemistry: new perspectives in sulfur, selenium and tellurium (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=IvGnUAaSqOsC& pg=PA359). Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 359–361. ISBN 0854043667. . [63] Seidel, S.; Seppelt, K. (2000). "Xenon as a Complex Ligand: The Tetra Xenono Gold(II) Cation in AuXe42+(Sb2F11−)2". Science 290 (5489): 117–118. doi:10.1126/science.290.5489.117. PMID 11021792. [64] Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. (2006). "Revising the Highest Oxidation States of the 5d Elements: The Case of Iridium(+VII)". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45 (22): 3708–3711. doi:10.1002/anie.200600274. PMID 16639770. [65] Dierks, S (May 2005). "Gold MSDS" (http:/ / www. espi-metals. com/ msds's/ gold. htm). Electronic Space Products International. . [66] Wright, I. H.; Vesey, C. J. (1986). "Acute poisoning with gold cyanide". Anaesthesia 41 (79): 936–939. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.1986.tb12920.x.
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137 [67] Wu, Ming-Ling; Tsai, Wei-Jen; Ger, Jiin; Deng, Jou-Fang; Tsay, Shyh-Haw; Yang, Mo-Hsiung. (2001). "Cholestatic Hepatitis Caused by Acute Gold Potassium Cyanide Poisoning". Clinical toxicology 39 (7): 739–743. doi:10.1081/CLT-100108516. PMID 11778673. [68] Henna tattoo ingredient is Allergen of the Year.(Clinical Rounds) (http:/ / www. entrepreneur. com/ tradejournals/ article/ 149265914. html). Retrieved Sept 17, 2009. [69] Brunk, Doug (February 15, 2008). "Ubiquitous nickel wins skin contact allergy award for 2008" (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1G1-176478357. html). . [70] "World Gold Council > value > research & statistics > statistics > supply and demand statistics" (http:/ / www. gold. org/ value/ stats/ statistics/ gold_demand/ index. html). . Retrieved 2006-07-22. [71] Kitco.com (http:/ / kitco. com/ LFgif/ au75-pres. gif), Gold - London PM Fix 1975 - present (GIF), Retrieved 2006-07-22. [72] "Goldfinger Brown's £2 billion blunder in the bullion market" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ politics/ article1655001. ece). The Times (London), 15 April 2007. [73] "LBMA statistics" (http:/ / www. lbma. org. uk/ 2008dailygold. htm). Lbma.org.uk. 2008-12-31. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [74] "Gold hits yet another record high" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 8390779. stm). BBC News. 2009-12-02. . Retrieved 2009-12-06. [75] "PRECIOUS METALS: Comex Gold Hits All-Time High" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ BT-CO-20100511-717954. html). The Wall Street Journal. May 11, 2010. . Retrieved August 4, 2010. [76] Gibson, Kate; Chang, Sue (May 11, 2010). "Gold futures hit closing record as investors fret rescue deal" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/ gold-prices-resume-rise-as-eu-plan-pondered-2010-05-11). MarketWatch. . Retrieved August 4, 2010. [77] 10 Year Gold (http:/ / kitco. com/ LFgif/ au3650nyb. gif) (GIF). Kitco.com. [78] "Gold starts 2006 well, but this is not a 25-year high!" (http:/ / www. ameinfo. com/ 75511. html). Ameinfo.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-05. [79] California Government Code selection 420-429.8 (http:/ / www. leginfo. ca. gov/ cgi-bin/ displaycode?section=gov& group=00001-01000& file=420-429. 8) (see § 425.1) [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86]
Alaska Statutes (http:/ / www. legis. state. ak. us/ cgi-bin/ folioisa. dll/ stattx08/ query=*/ doc/ {@17998}?) (see§ 44.09.110) http:/ / www. lateralscience. co. uk/ gold/ auriferous. html http:/ / www. epa. gov/ epaoswer/ other/ mining/ techdocs/ gold. pdf http:/ / www. pniok. de/ au. htm http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Au/ index. html http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemistryworld/ podcast/ element. asp http:/ / www. rsc. org/ images/ CIIE_Gold_48k_tcm18-118269. mp3
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Minotaur
Minotaur bust, (National Archaeological Museum of Athens) Mythology
Greek
Grouping
Legendary creature
Parents
Cretan Bull and Pasiphaë
Region
Crete
Topics in Greek mythology Gods • • • • •
Primordial gods and Titans Zeus and the Olympians Pan and the nymphs Apollo and Dionysus Sea-gods and Earth-gods
Heroes • • • • • • • •
Heracles and his Labors Achilles and the Trojan War Odysseus and the Odyssey Jason and the Argonauts Perseus and Medusa/Gorgon Oedipus and Thebes Theseus and the Minotaur Triptolemus and the Eleusinian Mysteries
Related • •
Satyrs, centaurs and dragons Religion in Ancient Greece
In Greek mythology, the Minotaur (Greek: Μῑνώταυρος, Latin: Minotaurus, Etruscan Θevrumineś), as the Greeks imagined him, was a creature with the head of a bull on the body of a man[1] or, as described by Ovid, "part man and part bull".[2] He dwelt at the center of the Cretan Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction[3] built for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus who were ordered to build it to hold the Minotaur. The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian founder-hero Theseus. Theseus was the son of Aethra, and fathered by both Poseidon and Aegeus. The term Minotaur derives from the Greek Μῑνώταυρος, etymologically compounding the name Μίνως (Minos) and the noun ταύρος "bull", translating as "(the) Bull of Minos". In Crete, the Minotaur was known by its proper name, Asterion,[4] a name shared with Minos' foster-father.[5]
Minotaur Minotaur was originally a proper noun in reference to this mythical figure. The use of minotaur as a common noun to refer to members of a generic race of bull-headed creatures developed much later, in 20th-century fantasy genre fiction.
Birth and appearance After he ascended the throne of Crete, Minos struggled with his brothers for the right to rule. Minos prayed to Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull, as a sign of approval. He was to sacrifice the bull in honor of Poseidon but decided to keep it instead because of its beauty. To punish Minos, Aphrodite made Pasiphaë, Minos' wife, fall madly in love with the bull from the sea, the Cretan Bull.[6] She had Daedalus, the famous architect, make a wooden cow for her. Pasiphaë climbed into the bait in order to copulate with the white bull. The offspring of their coupling was a monster called the Minotaur. Pasiphaë nursed him in his infancy, but he grew and became ferocious; being the unnatural offspring of man and beast, he had no natural source of nourishment Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix, Cabinet des Médailles (Paris) and thus devoured man for sustenance. Minos, after getting advice from the Oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos' palace in Knossos. Nowhere has the essence of the myth been expressed more succinctly than in the Heroides attributed to Ovid, where Pasiphaë's daughter complains of the curse of her unrequited love: "the bull's form disguised the god, Pasiphaë, my mother, a victim of the deluded bull, brought forth in travail her reproach and burden."[7] Literalist and prurient readings that emphasize the machinery of actual copulation may, perhaps intentionally, obscure the mystic marriage of the god in bull form, a Minoan mythos alien to the Greeks.[8] The Minotaur is commonly represented in Classical art with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. One of the figurations assumed by the river god Achelous in wooing Deianira is as a man with the head of a bull, according to Sophocles' Trachiniai. From Classical times through the Renaissance, the Minotaur appears at the center of many depictions of the Labyrinth.[9] Ovid's Latin account of the Minotaur, which did not elaborate on which half was bull and which half man, was the most widely available during the Middle Ages, and several later versions show the reverse of the Classical configuration: a man's head and torso on a bull's body, reminiscent of a centaur.[10] This alternative tradition survived into the Renaissance, and still figures in some modern depictions, such as Steele Savage's illustrations for Edith Hamilton's Mythology (1942).
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Tribute price that brought Theseus to Crete Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic festival. Others say he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan bull, his mother's former taurine lover, which Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded him to slay. The common tradition is that Minos waged war to avenge the death of his son, and won. Catullus, in his account of the Minotaur's birth,[11] refers to another version in which Athens was "compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeos." Aegeus must avert the plague caused by his crime by sending "young men at the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast" to the Minotaur. Minos required that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, drawn by lots, be sent every ninth year (some accounts say every year[12] ) to be devoured by the Minotaur. When the third sacrifice approached, Theseus volunteered to slay the monster. He promised to his father, Aegeus, that he would put up a Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head at the Greek white sail on his journey back home if he was successful and would pavilion at Expo '88 have the crew put up black sails if he was killed. In Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, fell in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the labyrinth, which had a single path to the center. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. Theseus killed the Minotaur with the sword of Aegeus and led the other Athenians back out of the labyrinth. But he forgot to put up the white sail, so when his father saw the ship he presumed Theseus was dead and threw himself into the sea, thus committing suicide.[13]
Etruscan view This essentially Athenian view of the Minotaur as the antagonist of Theseus reflects the literary sources, which are biased in favour of Athenian perspectives. The Etruscans, who paired Ariadne with Dionysus, never with Theseus, offered an alternative Etruscan view of the Minotaur, never seen in Greek arts: on an Etruscan red-figure wine-cup of the early-to-mid fourth century Pasiphaë tenderly dandles an infant Minotaur on her knee.[14]
Interpretations The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names was Asterion ("star").
The Minotaur in the Labyrinth, engraving of a 16th-century gem in the Medici Collection in the [15] Palazzo Strozzi, Florence
The ruins of Minos' palace at Knossos have been found, but the labyrinth has not. The enormous number of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led some archaeologists to suggest that the palace itself was the source of the labyrinth myth, an idea generally discredited today.[16] Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that the labyrinth was Ariadne's ceremonial dancing ground.
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Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar personification and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case indicates the breaking of Athenian tributary relations with Minoan Crete. According to A. B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur are only different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphae's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin.
Theseus fighting the Minotaur by Jean-Etienne Ramey, marble, 1826, Tuileries Gardens, Paris.
A historical explanation of the myth refers to the time when Crete was the main political and cultural potency in the Aegean Sea. As the fledgling Athens (and probably other continental Greek cities) was under tribute to Crete, it can be assumed that such tribute included young men and women for sacrifice. This ceremony was performed by a priest disguised with a bull head or mask, thus explaining the imagery of the Minotaur. It may also be that this priest was son to Minos. Once continental Greece was free from Crete's dominance, the myth of the Minotaur worked to distance the forming religious consciousness of the Hellene poleis from Minoan beliefs.
The Minotaur in Dante's Inferno The Minotaur, the infamia di Creti, appears briefly in Dante's Inferno, The bronze "Horned God" from Enkomi, Cyprus Canto 12,11-15, where, picking their way among boulders dislodged on the slope and preparing to enter into the Seventh Circle,[17] Dante and Virgil, his guide, encounter the beast first among those damned for their violent natures, the "men of blood", though the creature is not actually named until line 25.[18] At Virgil's taunting reminder of the "king of Athens", the Minotaur rises enraged and distracted, and Virgil and Dante pass quickly by to the centaurs, who guard the Flegetonte, "river of blood". This unusual association of the Minotaur with centaurs, not made in any Classical source, is shown visually in William Blake's rendering of the Minotaur (illustration) as a kind of taurine centaur himself.
See also • Apis, the Egyptian god is often depicted as a bull, or bull-headed man. • Michael Ayrton 20th century British artist whose work included many interpretations of the Minotaur, Daedalus, mazes and the Labyrinth.
Minotaur • • • • •
William Blake Mesopotamian mythology: Shedu had a bull body and a human head. Molech or Ba'al worshipped in the Middle East, and depicted as a man with the head of a bull. Sarangay, a creature resembling a bull with a huge muscular body and a jewel attached to its ears Ushi-oni Another bull-headed monster; from Japanese folklore.
References • Minotaur in Greek Myth [19] source Greek texts and art.
References [1] "Minotaur" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Minotaur) at dictionary.reference.com [2] semibovemque virum semivirumque bovem, according to Ovid, Ars Amatoria 2.24, one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by Albinovanus Pedo. (noted by J. S. Rusten, "Ovid, Empedocles and the Minotaur" The American Journal of Philology 103.3 (Autumn 1982, pp. 332-333) p. 332. [3] Labyrinth patterns as painted or inscribed do not have dead ends like a maze; instead, a single path winds to the center, where, with a single turn, the alternate path leads out again. See Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, Chapter 1, and Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, Cornell University Press, 1990, Chapter 2. [4] Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 31. 1 [5] The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, says of Zeus' establishment of Europa in Crete: "...he made her live with Asterion the king of the Cretans. There she conceived and bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthys." [6] In Greek mythology, the Cretan Bull was equally the bull that carried away Europa. [7] Walter Burkert notes the fragment of Euripides' The Cretans (C. Austin's frs. 78-82) as the "authoritative version" for the Hellenes. [8] See R.F. Willetts, Cretan Cults and Festivals (London, 1962); Pasiphaë's union with the bull has been recognized as a mystical union for over a century: F. B. Jevons, )"Report on Greek Mythology" Folklore 2.2 (June 1891:220-241) p. 226) notes of Europa and Pasiphaë, "The kernel of both myths is the union of the moon-spirit (in human shape) with a bull; both myths, then, have to do with a sacred marriage." [9] Several examples are shown in Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000. [10] Examples include illustrations 204, 237, 238, and 371 in Kern. op. cit. [11] Carmen 64 (http:/ / rudy. negenborn. net/ catullus/ text2/ e64. htm). [12] The annual period is given by J. E. Zimmerman, Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Harper & Row, 1964, article "Androgeus"; and H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology, Dutton, 1959, p. 265. Zimmerman cites Virgil, Apollodorus, and Pausanias. The nine-year period appears in Plutarch and Ovid. [13] Plutarch, Theseus, 15—19; Diodorus Siculus i. I6, iv. 61; Bibliotheke iii. 1,15 [14] The wine cup is illustrated in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Mythology (Series The Legendary Past, British Museum / University of Texas) 2006, fig.29 p. 44 ("early fourth century") ( on-line illustration (http:/ / bama. ua. edu/ ~ksummers/ cl222/ LECT14/ sld029. htm)). [15] Paolo Alessandro Maffei, Gemmae Antiche, 1709, Pt. IV, pl. 31; Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, fig. 371, p. 202): Maffei "erroneously deemed the piece to be from Classical antiquity". [16] Sir Arthur Evans, the first of many archaeologists who have worked at Knossos, is often given credit for this idea, but he did not himself believe it; see David McCullough, The Unending Mystery, Pantheon, 2004, p. 34-36. Modern scholarship generally discounts the idea; see Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, p. 42-43, and Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, Cornell University Press, p. 1990, p. 25. [17] The traverse of this circle is a long one, filling Cantos 12 to 17. [18] Jeremy Tambling, "Monstrous Tyranny, Men of Blood: Dante and "Inferno" XII" The Modern Language Review 98.4 (October 2003:881-897). [19] http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ Minotauros. html
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Labyrinth In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth (Greek λαβύρινθος labyrinthos) was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos. Its function was to hold the Minotaur, a creature that was half man and half bull and was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. Daedalus had made the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it.[1] Theseus was aided by Ariadne, who provided him with a skein of thread, literally the "clew", or "clue", so he could find his way out again. In colloquial English labyrinth is generally synonymous with maze, but many contemporary scholars observe a distinction between the two: maze refers to a complex branching (multicursal) puzzle with choices of path and direction; while a single-path (unicursal) labyrinth has only a single, non-branching path, which leads to the center. A labyrinth in this sense has an unambiguous route to the center and back and is not designed to be difficult to navigate.[2] Although early Cretan coins occasionally exhibit multicursal patterns,[3] the unicursal seven-course "Classical" design became associated with the Labyrinth on coins as early as 430 BC,[4] and became widely used to represent the Labyrinth – even though both logic and literary descriptions make it clear that the Minotaur was trapped in a complex branching maze.[5] Even as the designs became more elaborate, visual depictions of the Labyrinth from Roman times until the Renaissance are almost invariably unicursal. Branching mazes were reintroduced only when garden mazes became popular in the Renaissance.
Classical labyrinth.
Atlantic Bronze Age labyrinth. Meis, Galicia.
Labyrinths appeared as designs on pottery or basketry, as body art, and etched on walls of caves or churches. The Romans built many primarily decorative labyrinth designs on walls and floors in tile or mosaic. Many labyrinths set in floors or on the ground are large enough that the path to the center and back can be walked. They have historically been used both in group ritual and for private meditation.
Ancient labyrinths Pliny's Natural History mentions four ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth and an Italian labyrinth.
Roman mosaic picturing Theseus and the Minotaur. Rhaetia, Switzerland.
Labyrinth is a word of pre-Greek (Minoan) origin absorbed by Classical Greek and is perhaps related to the Lydian labrys ("double-edged axe", a symbol of royal power, which fits with the theory that the labyrinth was originally the royal Minoan palace on Crete and meant "palace of the double-axe"), with -inthos meaning "place" (as in Corinth). A lot of these symbols were found in the Minoan palace and they usually accompanied female goddesses. It was probably the symbol of the arche (Mater-arche:matriarchy). This theory is confirmed by the worship of Zeus Labraundos (Ζεύς Λαβρυάνδις) in Caria of Anatolia, where
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also existed a sacred site named Labraunda. Zeus is depicted holding a double-edged axe.[6] In classical Greece the priests at Delphi were called Labryades (Λαβρυάδες) - the men of the double axe.[7] The complex palace of Knossos in Crete is usually implicated, though the actual dancing-ground, depicted in frescoed patterns at Knossos, has not been found. Something was being shown to visitors as a labyrinth at Knossos in the 1st century AD (Philostratos, De vita Apollonii Tyanei iv.34).[8] A palace of similar complicated structure was discovered at Beycesultan in Anatolia, on the headwaters of Meander river.[9] The word labyrinthos (Mycenaean daburinthos[10] ) may possibly show the same equivocation between initial d- and l- as is found in the variation of the early Hittite royal name Tabarna / Labarna (where written t- may represent phonetic d-). If so, the equivocation would be similar to the Vedic sandhi representation of intervocalic retroflex -ḍ- as -ḷ-. It is possible that daburinthos may be cognate with the name of Mt. Tābôr,but this is not generally accepted. Greek mythology did not recall, however, that in Crete there was a Lady or mistress who presided over the Labyrinth, although the goddess of mysteries of Arcadian cults was called Despoine (miss)[11] . A tablet inscribed in Linear B found at Knossos records a gift "to all the gods honey; to the mistress of the labyrinth honey." All the gods together receive as much honey as the Mistress of the Labyrinth alone. The Mycenean Greek word is potnia. "She must have been a Great Goddess," Kerényi observes.[12] It is possible that the Cretan labyrinth and the Lady were connected with a cult which was transmitted later to the Eleusinian mysteries.[13] [14] The labyrinth is the referent in the familiar Greek patterns of the endlessly running meander, to give the "Greek key" its common modern name. In the 3rd century BC, coins from Knossos were still struck with the labyrinth symbol. The predominant labyrinth form during this period is the simple seven-circuit style known as the classical labyrinth. The term labyrinth came to be applied to any unicursal maze, whether of a particular circular shape (illustration) or rendered as square. At the center, a decisive turn brought one out again. In the Socratic dialogue that Plato produced as Euthydemus, Socrates describes the labyrinthine line of a logical argument: "Then it seemed like falling into a labyrinth: we thought we were at the finish, but our way bent round and we found ourselves as it were back at the beginning, and just as far from that which we were seeking at first." ... Thus the present-day notion of a labyrinth as a place where one can lose [his] way must be set aside. It is a confusing path, hard to follow without a thread, but, provided [the traverser] is not devoured at the midpoint, it leads surely, despite twists and turns, back to the beginning.[15]
Medieval labyrinth.
Walking the famous labyrinth on floor of Chartres Cathedral.
Chakravyuha, a threefold seed pattern with a spiral at the centre, one of the troop formations employed at the battle of Kurukshetra, as recounted in the Mahabharata.
I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze", a popular design in Native American basketry.
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Cretan labyrinth at Knossos Wrapped in legend, but also clearly manifested in the archaeological record, is the huge Bronze Age labyrinth at Knossos. The Cretan labyrinth had been a dancing-ground and was made for Ariadne rather than for Minos. This was mentioned by Homer in the Iliad xviii.590–593, where, in the pattern that Hephaestus inscribed on Achilles' shield, one incident pictured was a Labyrinth among rock drawings in dancing-ground "like the one that Daedalus designed in the spacious town of Valcamonica, Italy Knossos for Ariadne of the lovely locks." Even the labyrinth dance was depicted on the shield, where "youths and marriageable maidens were dancing on it with their hands on one another's wrists... circling as smoothly on their accomplished feet as the wheel of a potter...and there they ran in lines to meet each other."
Herodotus' Egyptian labyrinth Even more generally, labyrinth might be applied to any extremely complicated maze-like structure. Herodotus, in Book II of his Histories, describes as a "labyrinth" a building complex in Egypt, "near the place called the City of Crocodiles," that he considered to surpass the pyramids in its astonishing ambition: It has twelve covered courts — six in a row facing north, six south — the gates of the one range exactly fronting the gates of the other. Inside, the building is of two storeys and contains three thousand rooms, of which half are underground, and the other half directly above them. I was taken through the rooms in the upper storey, so what I shall say of them is from my own observation, but the underground ones I can speak of only from report, because the Egyptians in charge refused to let me see them, as they contain the tombs of the kings who built the labyrinth, and also the tombs of the sacred crocodiles. The upper rooms, on the contrary, I did actually see, and it is hard to believe that they are the work of men; the baffling and intricate passages from room to room and from court to court were an endless wonder to me, as we passed from a courtyard into rooms, from rooms into galleries, from galleries into more rooms and thence into yet more courtyards. The roof of every chamber, courtyard, and gallery is, like the walls, of stone. The walls are covered with carved figures, and each court is exquisitely built of white marble and surrounded by a colonnade.[16] During the 19th century, the remains of the Labyrinth were discovered "11½ miles from the pyramid of Hawara, in the province of Faioum."[17] The Labyrinth was likely modified and added upon "at various times. The names of more than one king have been found there, the oldest" name being that of Amenemhat III.[17] "It is unnecessary to imagine more than that it was monumental, and a monument of more than one king of Egypt."[17] In 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as "the largest of all the temples of Egypt, the so-called Labyrinth, of which, however, only the foundation stones have been preserved."[18] Herodotus' description of the Egyptian Labyrinth, in Book II of The Histories, inspired some central scenes in Bolesław Prus' 1895 historical novel, Pharaoh.
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Pliny's Lemnian labyrinth Pliny the Elder's Natural History (36.90) lists the legendary Smilis, reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical mid-sixth-century BC architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart[19] regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location en limnais ['in the marsh']."
Pliny's Italian labyrinth According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general Lars Porsena contained an underground maze. Pliny's description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian Varro.
Ancient labyrinths outside Europe At about the same time as the appearance of the Greek labyrinth, a topologically identical pattern appeared in Native American culture, the Tohono O'odham labyrinth which features I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze". The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from the Greek: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where traditional Greek labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see below). A prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in Goa shows the same pattern and has been dated to circa 2500 BC. Other examples have been found among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the Nilgiri Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately. Early labyrinths in India all follow the Classical pattern; some have been described as plans of forts or cities.[20]
Carving showing the warrior Abhimanyu entering the chakravyuha – Hoysaleswara temple, Halebidu, India
Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and Tantric texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called "Chakravyuha" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient Mahabharata epic. Lanka, the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is described as a labyrinth in the 1910 translation of Al-Beruni's India (c.1030CE) p. 306 (with a diagram on the following page).[21] By the White Sea, notably on the Solovetsky Islands, there have been preserved more than 30 stone labyrinths. The most remarkable monument is the Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island - a group of 13–14 stone labyrinths on 0.4 km2 area of one small island. It is considered that these labyrinths are 2,000–3,000 years old.[22]
Labyrinth as pattern In antiquity, the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from medieval examples was already developed. In Roman floor mosaics, the simple classical labyrinth is framed in the meander border pattern, squared off as the medium requires, but still recognisable. Often an image of the Minotaur appears in the centre of these mosaic labyrinths. Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now familiarly known as the medieval form. The labyrinth retains its connection with death and a triumphant return: at Hadrumentum in North Africa (now Sousse), a Roman family tomb has a fourfold labyrinth mosaic floor with a dying minotaur in the center and a mosaic inscription: HICINCLUSUS.VITAMPERDIT "Enclosed here, he loses life" (Kerenyi, fig.31).
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Earliest recovered labyrinth, incised on a clay tablet from Pylos.
Minotaur in Labyrinth—a Roman mosaic at Conímbriga, Portugal.
Sketch by Villard de Honnecourt (c.1230)
Wall maze in Lucca Cathedral, Italy (probably medieval).
Illustration of Jericho in a Farhi Bible (14th century)
Basilica of St-Quentin, Aisne, France
Cathedral of Amiens, France
Stone labyrinth on Blå Jungfrun (Blue Virgin) island, Sweden
Seven-ring classical labyrinth of unknown age in Rocky Valley near Tintagel, Cornwall, UK.
Small turf maze near Dalby, North Yorkshire, UK.
Turf maze at Wing in Rutland, UK.
Portrait of a man, by Bartolomeo Veneto, Italy, early 16th century
Minotaur at center of labyrinth, on a 16th-century gem.
Edinburgh labyrinth, George Square Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
9/11 memorial labyrinth, Boston College, USA.
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Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth design came about during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, notably Chartres, Reims and Amiens in northern France and the Duomo di Siena in Tuscany. These labyrinths may have originated as symbolic allusion to the Holy City; and some modern thinkers have theorized that prayers and devotions may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate paths.[23] However, no contemporary evidence supports the idea that labyrinths had such a purpose for early Christians.[24] It is this version of the design that is thought to be the inspiration for the many turf mazes in the UK, such as survive at Wing, Hilton, Alkborough, and Saffron Walden.
Labyrinth in the Trappist Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Wallonia, Belgium.
Over the same period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in Scandinavia. These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones, most often in the simple classical form. They often have names which translate as "Troy Town". They are thought to have been constructed by fishing communities: trapping malevolent trolls or winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition. There are also stone labyrinths on the Isles of Scilly, although none is known to date back as far as the earliest Scandinavian ones. There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures. The symbol has appeared in various forms and media (petroglyphs, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time throughout most parts of the world, from Native North and South America to Australia, Java, India, and Nepal.
Modern labyrinths In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the labyrinth symbol, which has inspired a revival in labyrinth building. Countless computer games depict mazes and labyrinths. On bobsled, luge, and skeleton tracks, a labyrinth is where there are three to four curves in succession without a straight line in between any of the turns. In modern imagery, the labyrinth of Daedalus is often represented by a multicursal maze, in which one may become lost. The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories (such as "The House of Asterion" in The Aleph). His use of it has inspired other authors' works (e.g. Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose, Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves). Additionally, Roger Zelazny's fantasy series, The Chronicles of Amber, features a labyrinth, called "the Pattern", which grants those who walk it the power to move between parallel worlds. The avant-garde multi-screen film, In the Labyrinth, presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth. In Rick Riordan's series Percy Jackson & the Olympians, the events of the fourth novel The Battle of the Labyrinth predominantly take place
Labyrinth at St. Lambertus, Mingolsheim, Germany.
Labyrinth on floor of Grace Cathedral, San Francisco.
Labyrinth within the labyrinth of Daedalus, which has followed the heart of the West to settle beneath the United States. Australian author Sara Douglass incorporated some labyrinthine ideas in her series The Troy Game, in which the Labyrinth on Crete is one of several in the ancient world, created with the cities as a source of magical power. The labyrinth is also treated in contemporary fine arts. Examples include Piet Mondrian's Dam and Ocean (1915), Joan Miró's Labyrinth (1923), Pablo Picasso's Minotauromachia (1935), M. C. Escher's Relativity (1953), Friedensreich Hundertwasser's Labyrinth (1957), Jean Dubuffet's Logological Cabinet (1970), Richard Long's Connemara sculpture (1971), Joe Tilson's Earth Maze (1975), Richard Fleischner's Chain Link Maze (1978), István Orosz's Atlantis Anamorphosis (2000), Dmitry Rakov's Labyrinth (2003), and Labyrinthine projection by contemporary American artist Mo Morales (2000).
Cultural meanings Prehistoric labyrinths are believed to have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as defined paths for ritual dances. In medieval times, the labyrinth symbolized a hard path to God with a clearly defined center (God) and one entrance (birth). Labyrinths can be thought of as symbolic forms of pilgrimage; people can walk the path, ascending toward salvation or enlightenment. Many people could not afford to travel to holy sites and lands, so labyrinths and prayer substituted for such travel. Later, the religious significance of labyrinths faded, and they served primarily for entertainment, though recently their spiritual aspect has seen a resurgence. Many newly made labyrinths exist today, in churches and parks. Labyrinths are used by modern mystics to help achieve a contemplative state. Walking among the turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and thus quiets the mind. The Labyrinth Society[25] provides a locator for modern labyrinths all over the world.
See also • • • • • • • • •
Caerdroia Celtic maze Julian's Bower Maze Mizmaze Prayer Labyrinth Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island Troy Town Turf maze
References • Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, ed. Robert Ferré and Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000, ISBN 3-7913-2144-7. (This is an English translation of Kern's original German monograph Labyrinthe published by Prestel in 1982.) • Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, Cornell University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-80142-393-7. • Herodotus, The Histories, Newly translated and with an introduction by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1965. • Karl Kereny, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1976. • Helmut Jaskolski, The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and Liberation, Shambala, 1997. • Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990. ISBN 0-297-83027-9. • Jeff Saward, Labyrinths and Mazes, Gaia Books Ltd, 2003, ISBN 1-85675-183-X. • Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley, 2002, ISBN 1-84000-573-4.
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Labyrinth • W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development [26], Longmans, Green & Co., 1922. Includes bibliography [66]. Dover Publications reprint, 1970, ISBN 0-486-22614-X. • Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works. • Henning Eichberg, 2005: "Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner contradictions of running." [27] In: Athletics, Society & Identity. Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5:1. Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169-192. • Edward Hays, The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent, Forest of Peace Publishing, 1994.
External links • • • • • •
Labyrinthos.net [28] maintained by Jeff Saward The Labyrinth Society [71] Sunysb.edu [29], Through Mazes to Mathematics, Exposition by Tony Phillips Astrolog.org [75], Maze classification, Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them. Irrgartenwelt.de [30], Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes Begehbare-labyrinthe.de [31] Website (German) with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public labyrinths in Germany.
• MyMaze.de [32], German website (German) and MyMaze.de [33] (English) with descriptions, animations, links, and especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths. • IndigoGroup.co.uk [34], British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark. Photos and descriptions of the surviving historical turf mazes in Britain. • Gwydir.Demon.co.uk [35], Jo Edkins's Maze Page, an early website providing a clear overview of the territory and suggestions for further study. • Gottesformel.ch [36], "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" by Thomas M. Waldmann, rev. 2009 (German) (English) (French) (Greek). Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system near Gortyn, Crete, widely considered the original labyrinth on Crete. (Presentation somewhat amateurish – including