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³Women's empowerment and their full participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society, including participation in the decision -making process and access to power, are fundamental for the achievement of equality, development and peace. ´ (Beijing Declaration, 1995 )

Gender quotas in election can be a means to boost women¶s participation in politics. This is in line with the international agenda for women¶s advancement in all spheres, as mention in the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and also Beijing Platform for Action 1995. Now gender quota seems became µfever¶, which is followed by several countries in the world. In Indonesia, the regulation on gender quota for the first time is introduced on 2003 through Law number 23/ 2003. New law on Legislative General Election (Law number 10/2008) and Political Party (Law number 2/2008) also regulated gender quota. Mentioned on that law, every political party should ensure at lease 30% quota of women representatives in the process of establishment , as well as in the board structures. Furthermore, a political party could participate in 2009 general elect ion if there were at least 30% women in the party¶s board. But, that regulation seems as just a symbolic sign, since not followed by clear regulated implementation a s well as sanction for non-compliance. Although there are pro contra related with gender quota, I agree that gender quotas in election should be used in my country. I stand for that argument because of several reasons. First, gender quota is an affirmative action for women as a compensation of women¶s discrimination in politics . Affirmative action defined by

ED75.11 Gender Politics, Civil Society and Human Rights

Roberta Ann Johnson as ³a generic term for programmes which take some kind of initiative either voluntarily or under the compulsion of law, to increase, maintain, or rearrange the number or status of certain group members usually defined by race or gender, within a larger group´ (Bacchi, 1994). So, gender quota as an affirmative action for women can be understood as a positive discrimination to women in order to eliminate inequalities in politics, it also the fastest way to involve more women in politics, since politics is very male dominated. In case of Indonesia, under the constitution, as well as men, women are having equal opportunity in politics, but due to social and cultural constraints as well as gender discrimination, women having less participation in politics. Meaning that although having same opportunity but the starting condition between woman and man are different. There are some barriers that limit women to participate in politics. Strong patriarchy culture makes man are considered as a leader and woman as follower as well as gender bias in religion interpretation (especially Islam as the majority religion group in Indonesia and g enerally Muslim in Indonesia followed patriarchy social system and culture). For example fatwa anti women leader by ulama in East Jave related with Megawati Soekarnoputri¶s nomination as the president of Republic Indonesia (Netherland Radio, 2004). The divide of public and private sphere also becomes another constrain t to women in entering political sphere. Politics as public sphere is considered as man domain, while women are always linked with private sphere. When woman try to enter politics which is consider as public sphere the society considered as a taboo. Also the notion that politics is dirty and not appropriate for women makes them having less contribution in politics actively.

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Those conditions are described by Bessel (2004), that the barriers preventing women¶s representation in parliament were a combination o f the New Order gender ideology, religious values and women¶s stereotype. The notion of ibuism (housewife ization) has reinforced Indonesian women¶s duties as wife, mother, financial manager of the household and member of the society. That gender ideology was strongly maintained in the New Order era and assigns women roles in the domestic sphere as mother and wives, and further voter may internalize the idea that politics is not suitable to women. Those situations have placed men in the privileged position in the society, and create unequal opportunity between man and woman in politics also makes politics very much male dominated. Moreover, the political party also prefers to nominate men rather than women. So gender quota is the compensation to women due to some barriers and discrimination that they face in political sphere. Second, having gender quota will breakdown negative views of women, and also allowing them demonstrating their capabilities . As mentioned before that different with men, women face difficulties in entering political sphere because of gender discrimination. According to Carli (1999) gender differences in power give women real consequences, since men have greater access to social or interpersonal power than women do. Interpersonal or social power can be defined as ³having the potential to influence or control others or having control over valued resources or outcomes, and based on that definition, power is derived from the structural and external advantages of one group or individual over another´ (Carli, 1999). Men are assumed having that power, and as the consequence women are acknowledged less competent than men and men¶s opinion is more preferable and t ake into consideration.

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The negative views of women not only come from the political party or political actor but also from the voter. As the result women did not get opportunity, even if women having the same competency as men, men are more preferable rather than women. Through gender quota, women can get opportunity to show their skill and competence. Furthermore, it will breakdown the negative stereotype that women less competent than men. Third, gender quota ensures equal representation between women and men in the politics. Related with this, Phillips (1998) stated that ³democracy has become largely a matter of representing particular policies or programmes or ideas, is should be leaves a question why the sex of the representatives should matter .´ So, quota can be quick means to reach equal representation between women and men in the politics. During the New Order era, the highest percentage of women representatives in parliament only 13% in 1987, and the number was dropped in 1992; also in the reformation era in 1997 and 1999. Comparing to the total number of women, 118.048.783 from 237.556.363 of total population or almost 50% (BPS, 2010), with less number of women as a representatives indicate a phenomenon of under representation of women in the number of parli ament member, since there are only 18,04% women in parliament . Along with the Indonesia¶s history women are floating mass that used by the political party, since there are big number of women voter. But only few number of women involve actively in politics (parliament), meaning that women just supporter and their needs is less or even not being address in politics. Refer to the democracy system and parliament is the manifestation of representation of the society since difficult to enacted direct democracy within the state, as the representative of the society the position should be distributed among
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sexes and across all the ethnic groups that make up the society. But, in the practice, men are monopolizing representation. Refer to Htun, gender quota can be a way in translating legal equality between women and men into de facto equality by guaranteeing women¶s presence in leadership in the immediate term ( Aggio, 2001). The political representation also important, since women¶s right still not getting enough attention and women are marginalized in the decision making process. If everybody is agree with equal participation, why not for equal representation? Fourth, quota will increase number of women in parliament and lead to women¶s effective contribution, also can minimize stress that often experienced by the token women. Increasing number of women in parliament will lead to the women¶s contribution, since women are not likely having significant contribution in parliament unless the women¶s representatives increase from a few token individuals into a considerable minority or reach critical mass number of all legislators (Childs et all, 2008). Related with token phenomenon, Kanter (1977) explained that because of their few number comparing with male peers and often had µonly woman¶ status , they become tokens or symbol of how women can do, stand-ins for all women. That phenomenon also mentioned by Staudt (1998), that a lone woman is burdened by prejudice in committee and institutional settings. She having a pressure to be better rather than men politician and what she did then people will assumed or linkage with women as a whole. Those conditions put stress to the women¶s representatives and make them under pressure. By increasing number of women in parliament can reduce that stress and also feel of being isolated. It will open up the opportunity for the women to form supportive alliance, so they can give support to each other as well as give significant impact to the gender friendly policy change and influence their male

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colleagues. ³Women¶s contribution is depending on the willingness and ability of the minority to mobilize the resources of the organization or institution to improve the situation for themselves´ (Dahlerup, 1988). So, women can give impact beyond their token status if they form alliances and try to make chan ges. Fifth, women¶s experience is needed in the political sphere. Gender diversity in the parliament will give significant impact on the parliament¶s output. It is because women and men having different experience (because of socio-biologic), and influence the way they looking at the problem . Since women and men will look at the problem differently, it will enrich the discussion in the parliament and influence when creating a law because women would bring a different set of values, experiences and expertise to politics and enriching political life (Aggio, 2001). I realized that women are not single category and they may vary in responding gender issue, but at least they share one in common, which is they need improved access to every sphere. And the increase number of women representatives will increase the chances for a qualitative improvement of representativeness related with women interests. Since parliament plays significant role in the political game and also decision making process, by having more women in parliament will make greater opportunity having gender friendly policy. At least, gender quota can increase women¶s participation in po litics. Since gender quota in election will increase the number of women in parliament, then there will be some good women politician. With a good track-record in parliament can be their ladder to step in the political hierarchy. Furthermore they will be role model to other women, since there is lack of role model for women in politics so by having role model will increase women¶s participation in politics. It based on this argument, when more women candidates are elected, their example is said to raise women¶s self

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esteem, encourage others to follow in their footsteps and dislodge deep -rooted assumption on what is appropriate to women and men (Phillips, 1998). Beside the positive things of gender quota in election, there are also some downsides. First, gender quota in election is not automatically promoting gender equity, since it not automatically leads to remove all of the barriers for women involve in politics. Gender quota might bring women in into politics, but it does not mean changing the dynamic of the process that still gender bias and male dominated. Although women can participate in politics, but there is a tendency women representatives are concentrated in the commission that dealing with social, health, family and education. Based on IPU repo rt 2008 (Soetjipto, 2010), Sweden with 48% women representatives but they are mostly concentrated in education and health compare with defense commission and men that mostly in the economic and finance commission. In case of Indonesia, Galligan and Tremblay (2005) mentioned the strong patriarchal culture in political , while they often having a women¶s branch, but the most part heavily male dominated. Even if women reach positions of authority within party structure, they tend to be exclu ded from the informal power structure where µreal¶ decisions are made (Galligan & Tremblay, 2005). Meaning that even if political party increase their female member, but still a tendency to prevent women in influencing their political agenda and also in te rms of decision making process. Related with money as the biggest obstacles of the politician (both women and men), it will give preference to the one who have financial support. Because men having more resources and network, so it can support them financ ially, also µold boy¶ network without clear regulation in quota system, can hamper women entering politics since men will be in the top of electoral rank list. In Indonesia, although the General Election Law regulated zipper system, but in the implementati on many

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women candidate are placed in the final sequence of multiple 3, for example 3, 6, 9, etc (WRI, 2008). This will be happen if gender quota in election applies mechanism of reservation of candidates system by ensuring given minimum number of female candidates. Within the quota system the stigmatization of women politician might be increase. It is related with the difficulties face by women politician in combining family life, work life and politics wou ld the severe obstacle to women, i.e. unsocial working hour, less social support from the family and also lack of child care facilit ies. Second, having more women representatives does not mean they will promote more gender friendly policy to improve women¶s condition. Related with this, Krook (2006) argued that women who elected through quota may not pursue women friendly policy change, since it is gender quota (sex quota?), which try to increase women¶s number in politics and not related with the obligation to change policy outcome. Meaning that, it is not because a person a woman than she will automatically try to pursue gender sensitive policy. There is also a tendency of the possibility of internal conflict, since women became the representative through po litical party as their vehicles. As the consequence, the agenda and political party interest will more dominant rather than women¶s interest. If the political party did not have commitment on gender mainstreaming, it would be difficult to accommodate women¶s interest. Moreover the culture within the political party still put the power to the political party official (which is male dominated), especially in the central level. As the result the candidate will prefer to take µthe safe way¶ for the shake of her/ his political career, since criticize the political party will give negative effect to her/ his career.

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Third, women who elected through quota might be seen as token women or they just symbolic representation. That condition particularly face if the women elected have no power base in a constituency of their own or in the parties or in strong movement outside the political institutions (Dahlerup, 2005). Moreover, there might be tendency of the political party to nominate women who they will able to manage. Anna Balletbo - former MP, Spain - (Dahlerup, 2005) mentioned that ³since it is men who are opening up these spaces, they will seek out women who they will able to manage, who will more easily accept the hegemony of men ´. In case of Indonesia, the intern policy of political party to female candidate in particular (and female member in general) is not serious or half -hearted. There is a tendency that women are supported as a tool to fulfill the quota requirement in the first step and in the next step support is given to the men candidates (WR I, 2008). Fourth, gender quota ignoring merit principal, and there will be a tendency to elevate under-qualified women to power. As a result it did not influence the consisting condition of gender inequ ality and gender discriminatory, furthermore it can give bad effect on women¶s effort, because by gender quota seems giving women free pass ticket to enter politics without considering their capability (even if she has the capability). It also will make a notion that women can goes to parliament because of µquota¶ not because of her capability. Goetz and Hassim (Dahlerup, 2006) mentioned the example of Uganda, that gender quota that giving seat for women, removing them form normal competition fo r ward councilor seat and making them µseem lesser competition. Moreover if the women¶s candidates did not take effort to influence gender mainstreaming in parliament, then it will make the level of trust to the women representatives will be decreased. As a result it can lead to backlash in the society,

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giving woman quota but the representatives are not qualified. So why did not give that chance to qualified man or even feminist man? In order to eliminated or decreased the downside of gender quota in el ection, and since gender quota is an affirmative action, meaning that it is temporary not for permanent period (when women can have equal access and opportunity with men as well as no gender discrimination and socio -cultural barrier, then there will be no gender quota) so there should be an effort to reach it. First, Quota is not the final goal, but there should be followed by engendering politics. Meaning that, the structure and political system including in political party should be gender friendly. Political party should have serious commitment on gender mainstreaming. Even the based on law regulated gender quota in election, but the political party still did not realized the importance of women participation in politics. So, important to review and engender internal regulation of political party, program and another policy within the political party . This is important since the political parties are the gatekeeper to gender balance in political decision making , as mentioned by Dahlerup (2008) that political party control µthe secret garden of nomination¶ (Dahlerup, 2008). The importance of engendering political parties is also because the

representatives come from political party, so women representation in politics and gender equity agenda is based on the sincerity and political will of the political party and its elite. It also include how the political party distributed women representatives, and not giving them position in the com mittee which is identical with women¶s stereotype, i.e. culture, social welfare, etc but giving less opportunity in the committee of finance, security, etc.

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Since gender quota in election might be due to the pressure from international actors and domestic activists, so that action may not followed by change in the normative believe. Changing in political situation should be complemented with the changing in socio-economic as well. Second, give political education to the women. Political education can be g iven by political party, women organizations, etc. This is important in order to improve the capacity and knowledge of women so they would be qualified to be elected. The political education also includes knowledge about gender, so they will have gender sensitiveness and when they are elected they will promote gender policy. Gender sensitiveness in political education should be given not only to the women but also to the men as well, so both women and men will promote gender friendly policy. It is also important not only in terms of candidate but also voter, so they will vote for the candidate who promote gender program. Political party as one pier of democracy has function to conduct education, recruitment and political socialization. In or der to do it, there should be give greater opportunity to the women in learning practical politics by giving or placing them in the strategic position and involv ing them in the policy making process. Gender quotas are not µonly¶ about giving opportunity t o the women, but also related with relationship between the citizen and the state, conception of representative democracy and also power. It can be translated as a step towards (not the final ends) providing real equality of opportunity rather than equalit y in result. Meaning that gender quota should be followed by another effort to increase gender equity.

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References

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Kanter, Rosabeth Moss Kanter. (1977). Chapter 4: Men an d Women of the Corporation. In Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (pp 34-48). New York: Basic Books. Krook, Mona Lena. (2006). Gender Quotas, Norms and Politics. Politics and Gender 2. No. 1, pp.110-118. Lovenduski, Joni. (2005). Feminizing Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press. Marzilli, Alan (ed). (2004). Affirmative Action. Philadelphia: Chelsea House. Momsen, Janet. (2010). Gender and Development (second edition). London: Routledge. Netherland Radio, 2004, in Deby Prabawati, Quo Vadis Perempuan dalam Politik. Retrieved April 11, 2011. Website http://www.docstoc.com/docs/20427843/QUO -VADIS-PEREMPUAN-DALAMPOLITIK-Oleh-Debbie-Prabawati-I. Palmer, Barbara and Dennis Simon. (2006). Breaking the Political Glass Ceiling: Women and Congressional Elections. New York: Routledge. Phillips, Anne. (1991). Engendering Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press. _______. (1998). Democracy & Representation: Or Why Should it Matter Who Our Representatives Are. In Anne Phillips, Feminism and Politics (pp. 224-240). New York: Oxford University Press. Randall, Vicky and Georgina Waylen (eds). (1998). Gender, Politics and the State. London: Routldege. Ratnawati (2004). The Picture of Women¶s Quota in Parliament (in Bahasa Indonesia), Journal of Social and Political Sciences, Vol 7, No. 3, pp. 295 ± 313. Soetjipto, Ani et all. (2010). Gender Mainstreaming in the Parliament: Research on House of Representative and Regional Representative Council 2004 -2009 (in Bahasa Indonesia). Jakarta: UNDP Indonesia. Staudt, Kathleen. (1998). Policy, Politics and Gender, West Hartford Conn: Kumarian. Strolovitch, Dora. (2007). Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. UNDP Indonesia. (2010). Women¶s Participation in Politics and Government in Indonesia: A Policy Paper WRI. (2008). Delphi Panel: Women and Politics in the Local Autonomy Era in Indonesia (Quota and Decentralization) (in Bahasa Indonesia). Jakarta: WRI. Retrieved April 9, 2011. Website http://wri.or.id/id/penelitian/Penelitian%20Politik%20dan%20Perempuan?q=id/ penelitian%20politik%20dan%20perempuan/Delphi%20Panel%3A%20Perem puan%20dan%20Politik%20dalam%20Era%20Otonomi%20Daerah%20di%2 0Indonesia. Yanto, Oksidelfa. (2009). General Election 2009: Women Political Legitimacy (in Bahasa Indonesia). Journal of Community Dynamics. Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 1453 ± 1465.

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